MASTER 

NEGA  TIVE 

NO.  91-801 79 


MICROFILMED  1991 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES/NEW  YORK 


as  part  of  the 
Foundations  of  Western  Civilization  Preservation  Project 


Funded  by  the 
NATIONAL  ENDOWMENT  FOR  THE  HUMANITIES 


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AUTHOR: 


GUSMAN,  PIERRE 


TITLE: 


POMPEI 


PLACE: 


LONDON 


DA  TE : 


1900 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 
PRESERVATION  DEPARTMENT 

ninLiOGRAPHTr  microform  target 


Master  Negative  # 


Original  Material  as  Filmed  -  Existing  Bibliographic  Record 


874.7 
G97 


Gusman,  Pierre,  1862- 

Pompei,  the  city,  its  life  &  art,  by  Pierre  Gusman ;  tr. 
by  Florence  Simmonds  and  M.  Jourdain;  with  500  text 
illustrations  and  12  coloured  plates  from  drawings  by  the 
author.    London,  W.  Ileinemann,  1900. 

xvi,  423  p.    illus.,  12  col.  pi.  (incl.  front.)     32"". 
Bibliography:  p.  i419i-420. 


Restrictions  on  Use: 


1.  _Pompcii — Descr.    2.  Pompeii — Soc.  life  &  cust.    3.  Art,  Greco- Ro- 
man.       I.  Simmonds,  Florence,  tr.    ii.  Jourdain,  M.,  tr. 


3—15124 


Library  of  Congress  \^     DG70.P7G95 


J. 


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li"%i>ri>i«;    IX    THE    Cana    di     Tritlolemo  via     marima) 


2.  —  I.KDA 

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(haixtixc;    i.x    tiik    ('a%a    di    Caslnrf  o  PoUucr) 


POMPEI 


THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   ^   ART 


BY 


PIERRE   GUSMAN 


TRANSLATED    BY 


FLORENCE    SIMMONDS 


AND 


»    •        • 


M.  JOURDAIN 


fVilb  500  TVx/  Illustrations  and  12   Coloured  Plates 
from  Drawings  by  the  Author 


I 


LONDON 
WILLIAM    HEINEMANN 

MCM 


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«      • 

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/f //  n^A/J  reserved 


•  • 


TREFACE 

A  passionate  and  faithful  pilgrim  to  Pompei,  the 
ancient  citywas  so  full  of  charm  for  me,  the  smiling 
skies  and  sunny  atmosphere  of  fair  Campania 
breathed  such  balm  into  my  soul,  that  I  ofier  a 
labour  of  love  to  the  reader  in  the  book  I  lay 
before  him. 

I  have  not  attempted  an  imaginary  reconstruc- 
tion, but  I  have  honestly  tried  to  make  Pompei  live 
again,  by  the  help  of  authentic  documents  found  in 
the  buried  city,  and  by  the  light  of  the  many  books 
that  deal  with  the  subject.      This  is  a  history  of 
tlte   Pompemns,    illustrated   by   themselves.      The 
subject  is  vast,  too  vast  indeed.     I  have  been  obliged 
to  restrict  myself  to  a  comparatively  narrow  Held, 
but  I  shall  esteem  myself  happy  if  I  have  been  able 
to  make  my  readers  catch  some  of  those  delicate 
echoes  from  a  bygone  world  that  have  stirred  my 

0W71  senses  so  deliciously. 

P.  G. 


neriG 


CONTENTS 


PART   I 

DESTRUCTION  OF  POMPEI  AND  THE  EXCAVATIONS 

fAGB 

I.  Campania— Its  Climate  and  its  Charm— Opinions  of  Ancient  Writers     ....  3 

II.  The  First  Earthquake  of  the  Year  63— The  Rebuilding  of  the  Town        ....  6 

III.  The  Eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  the  Year  79— Pliny's  Two  Letters 8 

IV.  The  Strata  formed  by  the  Eruption— Imprints  of  Human  Bodies 13 

V.  The  "  Civiti  "—Recent  Excavations  and  those  now  in  Progress 22 

VI.  The  Plan  of  an  Ancient  City— The  City  Gates— The  Walls  and  Towers— An  Excursion 

round  Pompei *7 


PART   II 

THE  TOMBS,  THE  TEMPLES  AND  THE  VARIOUS  CULTS 

I.  The  Way  of  Tombs  and  Cicero's  Villa 43 

II.  Venus  Physica,  the  Patroness  of  Pompei— The  Worship  of  Venus  and  her  Temple        .      56 

III.  The  Greek  Temple *3 

IV.  The  Temple  of  Apollo— Apollo  the  God  of  Augury 66 

73 
88 

9» 


V.  The  Isis  of  Pompei— The  Isium— The  Cult  of  Isis— Women  Devotees  of  Isis 

VI.  The  Temple  of  Fortuna  Augusta— The  Fountain  of  Mercury 

VII.  The  Temple  of  Jupiter  Meilichios— The  Temple  of  Vespasian— The  Altar  of  Sacrifice   . 

VIII.  The  Temple  of  Jupiter,  or  Capitolium— The  Macellum— The  Sanctuary  of  the  Lares  of 

the  City— The  Augusteum— The  Augustales— The  Lares  of  Augustus— The  Lares 

compitales— The  Building  of  Eumachia— The  Public  Priestesses         .... 

IX.  The   Lares   domestici  and  their  Origin— The  Genius  loci— Serpents   {Agathodamons) 

and  their  Influence 

X.  Lararia- The  Rites  and  Customs  of  the  Domestic  Cult  of  the  Lares       .... 

XI.  Christianity  at  Pompei— The  Aureoles  of  Divinities  and  the  Wings  of  Genii— The 

Fascinum— The  Evil  Eye— Charms  and  Amulets— Sacred  Trees         .... 


PART   III 
PUBLIC    BUILDINGS  AND   RECREATIONS  OF   POMPEI 


96 

105 
no 

zas 


I.  The  Basilica 

II.  The  Forum 

III.  The  Baths  of  the  Forum— Strigils  and  Unguents^ Depilation 


«33 
136 

»4« 


CONTENTS 


vu 


■    • 


IV.  The  Stabian  Thermae  and  the  Palaestra 146 

V.  The  Smaller  Thermae  and  the  Municipal  Palaestra 149 

VI.  The  Barracks  of  the  Gladiators— Play-bills— The  Fight  between  the  Nucerians  and 

Pompeians je, 

VII.  The  Amphitheatre— The  Gladiatorial  Combats— The  "Venationes"       .        .  .158 

VIII.  The  Triangular  Forum— The  Theatres— The  Tesserae— Comedy— Music— Dancing— 

The  Atellan  Farces— Funambuli— The  Velarium— Theatrical  Machinery    .        .        .  166 


PART   IV 
THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 

I.  The  Streets  of  Pompei— The  Water  and  the  Sewers— The  Roads  and  Footways    .        .  183 

II.  The  Walls,  Advertisements,  Signs  and  Inscriptions jgo 

III.  Languages  spoken  in  Pompei— The  Writings  in  Use— The  Alphabets     .        .        .        .195 

IV.  The  Graffiti 201 

V.  Elections  and  Electioneering  Placards— The  Corporations— The  Magistrates         '.        .  204 
VI.  The  Receipts  of  the  Banker  Jucundus— Wax-tablets— The  Notation  in  Use    .        .        .213 

VII.  The  Taverns— The  Popina,  the  Thermopolia— The  Inns— The  Public  Kitchens     .        .  217 

VIII.  The  Lupanaria  and  the  Celiac  Meretriciae 226 

IX.  The  Shops  and  Receptacles  in  Use— Weights  and  Measures 229 

X.  Tools  and  Surgical  Instruments 234 

XI.  The  Bakehouse,  the  Mills,  the  Ovens  and  Loaves— Slaves— Fullers,  and  various  Industries  240 


PART  V 


THE  GRiECO-ROMAN   HOUSE 

I.  The  Outside  of  the  Houses— The  Ostium— The  Doors— The  Prothyrum.        .        .        .253 
II.  The  Atrium— The  Compluvium— The   Impluvium— The  Cartibulum- The  Hearth— 
The   Atrium    Testudinatum— The  Tuscan  Atrium— The  Tetrastyle   Atrium— The 
Corinthian  Atrium— The  Cavsedium— The  Lararium 258 

III.  The  Bedrooms— The  Beds— The  Ala^The  Tablinum— The  Andron  .        .        .267 

IV.  The  PeristyUum— The  Viridarium— Mosaic  Fountains— The  Aquarium— The  Apotheca 

—The  CEcus— The  Exedra— The  Garden— The  Triclinia— The  Kitchens— The  Latrinse 

—The  Baths— The  Venereum 373 

V.  SmaUer  Houses— The  Solarium— The  Stairs— The  Ccenaculum— The  Cellars         .        .  282 

VI.  Various  Houses ^gg 

VII.  The  Costume  of  the  Men  and  Women        .        .        .        .        .  ,06 

VIII.  Food  and  Meals  .  

310 


/ 


\ 


vm 


CONTENTS 

PART    VI 

THE  ARTS 
Architecture 
The  Orders— Columns  and  Capitals— Vaults  and  Building  Materials 


»-ACE 

3»9 


Painting 

I.  Mural  Decoration— The  Four  Periods :  Pre-Roman  Style,  Style  of  the  Republic,  Style  of 

the  First  Emperors,  Style  of  the  Last   Period— The   Candelabrum   Variety— The 
Egyptian  Variety — Asiatic  Influence 3^4 

II.  The  Technique  of  Pompeian  Painting— Encaustic  and  Alhed  Processes— Fresco  and 

Tempera— Preparation  of  the  Walls— Plasters 334 

III.  Colours— Sketches— Technical  Treatment— Plagiarisms 339 

IV.  Ancient  Paintings— Examples  of  Style— Greek  Painting 343 

V.  Liberty  and  Licence  in  Painting— Large  Compositions— Monochromes  .        .        .        -351 

VI.  The  Alexandrian  Spirit— The  Nude— Hermaphrodites,  Cupids,  and  Psyches— Dancing 

Groups— Single  Figures— Feminine  Beauty 357 

VII.  Allegory— Genre- Paintings— Original  Painting— Interiors 3^3 

VIII.  Portraits 3^6 

IX.  Still  Life— Flowers  — Plants— Animals—  Foreign  Subjects— Caricatures— Pygmies- 
Landscapes      373 

X.  Mosaics 3^0 

Sculpture 

I.  Alexandrian  Influences  in  Campania 3^ 

II.  Reproductions  of  Works  by  Greek  Sculptors— The  Doryphorus  oi   Polycletus— The 

Bacchus  of  Praxiteles— The  Lycian  Apollo— Hercules  and  the  Doe,  by  Lysippus— The 
Worksof  the  "Archaicists"— Polychromatic  Marble  Statues 387 

III.  P««»^Marble  Furniture— Busts  of  Men  and  Women— Official  Statues    .        .        .        -395 

IV.  Terra  cotta  Statues  and  Statuettes— Bas-reliefs  and  various  Objects  of  Terra-cotta— 

Polychrome  Terra-cotta 400 

V.  White  and  Polychrome  Stucco— Stucco  Figures— A  Stucco  Mask 404 

Ob  JETS  d'Art 

I.  SUver .        .    40« 

II.  Bronze  Articles ^** 

III.  Jewellery— Glass *'* 

Bibliography *  ' 

,  431 

Index  


f 


^o 


V, 


1 


LIST  OF   COLOURED   PLATES 


I' AGE 

I.  Venus — Leda — Bacchante Frontispiece 

II.  The  Stabian  Gate— The  Street  of  Stabiae To /ace      32 

III.  Painting  of  the  Thermopolium — The  Fountain  of  Youth — A  Foreign  Landscape  ,,          68 

rv.  The  House  of  the  Tragic  Poet „        106 

V.  A  Naval  Engagement— Vintage — Wine „        144 

VI.  Pompeian  Portraits ,,182 

VII.  Pompeian  Portraits „        220 

VIII.  Pompeian  Portraits — The  Death  of  Dirce „        258 

IX.  First  Decorative  Style — Second  Decorative  Style ,,        296 

X.  Third  Decorative  Style „        334 

XI.  Fourth  Decorative  Style „        372 

XII.  Mosaic  ;  a  Comic  Scene — Mosaic  Fountain „        410 


TEXT    ILLUSTRATIONS 


Pompei  from  the  Gate  of  Stabiae 

Map  of  the  Bay  of  Naples 

A  Man  (Museum  of  Pompei) 

Skeleton  embedded  in  Ashes    . 

A  Lantern  (Naples  Museum)    . 

A  Lamp  (Naples  Museum) 

A  Man  (Museum  of  Pompei) 

Man  with  Sandals  (Museum  of  Pompei) 

A  Woman  (Museum  of  Pompei) 

Key  of  Diomedes  (Naples  Museum) 

A  Man  (Museum  of  Pompei)     . 

The  Dog  of  Pompei  (Museum  of  Pom 

pei) 

A  Mirror  (Naples  Museum) 

Skull  and  Helmet  of  a  Soldier  (Naples 

Museum) 

Bronze  Seals  (Naples  Museum) 

View  of  the  Theatres  and  neighbouring 

Buildings  (from  the   raised  Map  in 

the  Naples  Museum) 
The  Street  of  Mercury  and  some  Insulae 


rxi-.E 

3 

II 

»4 
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19 
23 


28 


l-AGK 

(from  the  raised  Map  in  the  Naples 

Museum) 28 

Plan  of  Pompei 29 

The  Gate  of  the  Seas.l.ore  (Porta  Mcrina)  30 

The  Gate  of  Stabiae  (from  the  inside)       .  31 

The  Exedra  of  the  Gate  of  Stabiae  .        .  33 

Tombs  on  the  Road  to  Nuceria        ,        .  33 
The  Gate  of  Nola  or  of  Isis  (from  the 

inside) 34 

Oscan  Inscription,  and  Head  of  Isis  (after 

De  Clarac) 35 

Oscan  Lapidary  Marks     ....  36 
The  Walls  and  the  Towers       .        .         37,  38 
The  Gate  of  Herculaneum        ...  38 
View  from  inside  the  Gate  of  Hercula- 
neum    39 

The  Way  of  Tombs 44 

The  Exedra  of  Mamia's  Tomb         .        .  45 

Tomb  of  Servilia       .....  46 

Epitaph  of  Calventius  Quietus         .        .  47 

Epitaph  of  Tyche 47 

6 


-* 


\ 


■ 


TEXT   ILLUSTRATIONS 


Tombs  of  Tyche  and  Calventius  Quietus  48 
Memorial  Triclinium  .  .  •  •  49 
Tomb  of  the  second  Tyche  .  .  •  49 
The  Tomb  with  the  Marble  Door     .  5° 

Interior  of  the  Tomb  with  the    Marble 

Door 

The  Ustrinum 

The  Covered  Exedra 

The  Way  of  Tombs  .... 

The  Venus  of  Pompei  (from  a  Painting  in 

the  Casa  di  Castore  e  Polluce)  . 
The  Marine  Venus  .... 
Ruins  of  the  supposed  Temple  of  Venus 
An  Offering  to  Venus  (a  Painting)  . 
Doves  offered  to  Venus  (a  Painting) 
The    Marriage   of    Hercules   and    Hebe 

(Painting) 

The  Greek  Temple   .... 
The  Temple  of  Ceres  at  Paestum 
The  Greek  Temple   .... 
Bronze    Diana.     From   the  Temple    of 

Apollo  vNaples  Museum)  . 
The  Temple  of  Apollo 
The  Cella  of  the  Temple  of  Apollo  and 

the  Omphalos    .... 
A  Sacrifice  to  Apollo  (a  Painting  in  the 

House  of  the  Vettii)  . 
Tripod  with  the  Omphalos  (Painting  in 

the  House  of  the  Vettii)     . 
.\pollo  and  the  Omphalos  (Painting) 
Apollo  (Painting  in  the  Casa  del  Citarista) 
The  Temple  of  I  sis  . 
Stuccoes    in  the    Megarum    (Isiac    and 

Alexandrian  Attributes)     . 
Marble  Statue  of  I  sis  (Naples  Museum) 
Marble  Statue  of  Venus  from  the  Temple 

of  Isis  (Naples  Museum)    . 
Bronze  Tripod    of   Julia   Felix    (Secret 

Museum  of  Naples)    . 
Marble    Statue    of    Bacchus  from  the 
Temple  of  Isis  (Naples  Museum) 

Priests  of  Isis 

Hermanubis 

Priests  of  Isis 

The  Cult  of  Isis.    Sprinkhng  Holy  Water 
The  Feast  of  the  Ship  of  Isis  . 

A  Ship  of  Isis 

Ceremony    of    the    Cult    of    Isis.    The 

Sacred  Dance 

A   Ceremony   of    the   Cult   of    Isis.     The 
Adoration  of  the  Sacred  Water 


51 
5» 
52 
53 

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Norbanus  Sorex,  an  Actor 

Marble  Font  for  Lustral  Water  from  the 

Temple  of  Isis 

lo  landing  in  Egypt  (a  Painting  from  the 

Isiuin) 

Megarum  of  the  Temple  of  Isis 
Interior  of  the  Megarum,  Temple  of  Isis . 
Bronze  Isiac  Tripod  .... 

Silver  Vase  used  in  the  Cult  of  Isis,  and 

Details  of  the  Vase  (after  De  Clarac) 
Bronze  Sistrum         .... 
Oscan  Inscription  in  the  Temple  of  Isis 
Bronze  Statuette  of  Isityche     . 
Temple  of  Fortuna  Augusta     . 
Terracotta    Statue    of    Jupiter   (Naples 

Museum)     .... 
Terracotta  Statue  of  Juno  (Naples  Mu 

seum) 

Temple  of  Jupiter  Meilichios   . 

Temple  of  Vespasian 

Bas-reliefs  of  the  Altar  of  the  Temple  of 

Vespasian 

Patera 

Pembelon 

Sacrifice  of  a  Pig  (Marble  bas-relief) 
Bronze     Basin,    to    hold    Entrails 

Victims 

Marble  Bust  of  Jupiter  ... 
Temple  of  Jupiter,  or  Capitolium  . 
Interior  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter     . 

The  Macellum 

The  small  Temple  of  Augustus 

Altar  of  the  Lares  compitalcs  . 

Building  of  Eumachia 

Side   Entrance  to  the   Building  of  Eu 

machia  (in  front  is  the  Fountain  of 

Abundance)  .... 
Bronze  Bisellium  .... 
Marble  Statues  of  Priestesses  of  Pompei 
Eumachia  (Marble  Statue) 
The  Genius  loci  .... 
Protective  Sign  .... 
Stucco  Lararium  .... 
Atrium  and  Lararium  of  a  House  in  the 

Street  of  Nola    . 

Sacelluni 

Omphalos     (Painting     in     a     Lararium 

dedicated  to  Apollo)  . 
Altar  to  Ceres   .... 
Sacrifice  to  Abundance  (Painting) 
Bronze  Statuette  of  Abundance 


of 


rACR 

80 

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9> 

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lOI 

1 03 
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»03 
107 
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III 
III 

112 
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112 
"3 


TEXT   ILLUSTRATIONS 


Lararium  of  Epidius  Sabinus  (polychrome 

stucco) 

Lararium  of  polychrome  stucco 

Bronze     Statuette     of     Apollo    (Naples 

Museum) 

Bronze    Statue   of    /Esculapius  (Naples 

Museum) 

Terracotta  Patera  for  Libations  to  the 

Gods  of  the  Hearth  (Pompei  Museum) 
Terra-cotta  Braziers  of  Domestic  Altars 
Small  Bronze  Braziers 
Small  Tabic  (Anclabris)  used  as  an  Altar 
Small  Bronze  Brazier 
Folding    Tripods    for    Offerings    to    the 

Gods 

Altar  dedicated  to  Epona  (Painting  in  a 

House  in  the  Vico  di  Balbo) 
Marble    Bas-relief  of    the    Lararium    of 

Jucundus     

Altar  to  Fornax  (Painting) 

Lararium  dedicated  to  Bacchus  ( Painting 

in  the  Casa  del  Cenlenario) 
Lararium  of   the    House  of  the  Vettii 

(Stucco  and  Painting) 
Divinities  with  Blue  Aureoles  (Painting 

in  the  Casa  di  Apollo) 
Hercules    and    Auge    (Painting    in    the 

House  of  the  Vettii)  . 
Ariadne  guarded  by  a  Genius  (Painting 

in  a  House  in  the  Vico  di  Tesmo) 
Bronze  Victory  of  Pompei 
Victory  (Painting  in  the  Casa  di  Castore 

e  Polluce) 

Amulets  against  the  Evil  Eye  . 
Small  Bells  (Naples  Museum)  . 
Small  Bells  (Museum  of  Pompei) 
Rustic  Altar  and  Sacred  Tree  . 
Altar  to  Bacchus  and  Sacred  Tree  . 

The  Basilica 

Colonnade  of  the  Forum  ... 

The  Forum 

Standard  of  Measures  (Mensa  ponderaria' 
Arch  of  Tiberius  (?)  .... 
The  Arch  of  the  Street  of  Meicury  . 
Bronze  Statue    of  Tiberius   (?)  (Naples 

Museum) 

A  Bell  (Naples  Museum)   . 

The  Tepidarium  of  the  Baths  of  the  Forum 

The  Caldarium  of  the  Baths  of  the  Forum 

The  Instruments  of  a  Tractator 

Strigils 


XI 


1      Various  Utensils  in  use  in  the  Baths  (Un 

14  >  guentaria,  alabastra,  &c.)  . 

15  j      The  Sun-dial  of  the  Stabian  Thermae 

The  Apodyterium  of  the  Baths  of  Stabiae 

15  The  Palaestra  of  the  Stabian  Thermae 
Ephebus  leaning  on  a  Trochus 

1 6  The  Mosaic  of  the  Prothyrum  of  the  Small 

Thermae 

16  Wrestlers  ( Painting) 

16  Afcer  the  Wrestling-match  (Painting) 

17  Athlete  using  a  Strigil  (Painting) 
17  Victorious  Fencer  ( Painting)    . 
17  The  Municipal  Palaestra  . 

Fetters  (Naples  Museum) 

17  The  Barracks  of  the  Gladiators 
Graffiti 

18  Fight  of  the  Pompeians  and  Nuceiians 
Arena  of  the  Amphitheatre 

19  The  Amphitheatre    .... 

19  The  Tiers  of  Seats    .... 
Cornicen  announcing  the  Combat  (Paint 

20  ing  from  the  Podium) 
Gladiatorial    Combat     (from     the    Bas 

21  reliefs  in    Stucco   of    the   Tomb  of 
Scaurus,  after  Mazois) 

23  Helmets  of   Secutores,  Sword  of  a  Gla 

diator,  Arms  of  Gladiators 

24  Gladiator's  Helmet    .... 
The  End  of  the  Match  (Painting  on  the 

24  Podium) 

25  Votive  galerus  of  a  Retiarius    . 
Bas-relief  in    Stucco    on    the  Tomb   of 

25  Scaurus  (Venatio)       .... 

26  The  Winning  Cock  ataCock-fight  (Mo«aic) 

27  A  Bear  and  a  Bull  (Painting  in  the  Podium) 

28  The    Hecatonstylon    of  the    Triangular 

28  Forum 

28  Propylaea  of  the  Triangular  Forum  . 

33  The  Roofed  Theatre.     The  Door  on  the 

37  Street  of  Stabiae         .... 

38  Tesserae  (Naples  Museum) 

38  Auditorium  and  Orchestra  of  the  Roofed 

39  Theatre 170 

40  Comic  Actor  (Terra  cotta  Statue  in  the 

Naples  Museum)         .... 

40  Comic  Actress  (Terracotta  Statue  in  the 

41  Naples  Museum)         .... 

42  Marble  Masks  (Naples  Museum) 

43  An  Actor(Painting  in  the  Naples  Mnsenm) 

43  Choir,     Singer,    Tibicen,    and     Cithara 

44  Player ,72 


144 
146 
147 
147 
148 

150 
'50 
•51 
151 
151 
152 
153 
154 
155 
156 
158 

159 
160 

161 


161 

162 
163 

163 
163 

164 
164 

165 

166 

167 

168 
169 


170 

170 

171 

171 


TEXT   ILLUSTRATIONS 


PACE 

Musicians,  and  Musical  Instruments  .  173 
Citharaedi    (Painting   in    the   Casa   del 

Citarista) 174 

Funambulus 175 

Funambuli        ......    175 

A  Satyric  Dance  (Mosaic  in  the  Naples 

Museum) 176 

Dancers      (Painting     in     the      Naples 

Museum) 176 

Intercolumniums  of  the  Theatre  (Marble 

Bas-reliefs  in  the  Naples  Museu:n)  .  177 
General  View  of  the  Great  Theatre  .  .178 
Stage    and    Auditorium   of    the    Great 

Theatre 178 

A   Scene  in  the  Choragium  (Mosaic  in 

the  Naples  Museum) ....  179 
The   Choragus  (Painting  in  the  Naples 

Museum) 179 

The  Street  of  Stabise  .  .184 
The  Stepping  stones  and  the  Foot- 
ways   185 

Fountain  in  the  Street  of  Nola,  opposite 

the  Casa  della  Caccia  .  .  .186 
The  Fountain  of  the  Cock  .187 

Crossways  (Bivium)  of  the  Street  of  Sallust 

(Consular  Way)  .        .        .        .188 

Sign  of  a  Wine-seller  ....  190 
Marble  Sign  of  a  Milkman  .  .  .  190 
Marble  and  Terracotta  Signs  .  .  191,  192 
Front  of  a  Shop  (Region  X.  Insula  V.)    .     19a 

Mason's  Sign  (Tufa) 192 

Pedestal -of    the    Statue    of   Holconius 

Rufus,  Street  of  Abundance       .  193 

Inscription  on  Marble       ....     193 

Inscription 194 

The   School    (Painting    in    the    Naples 

Museum) 1Q4 

Alphabets.    Oscan   (retrograde  writing), 

Greek,  and  Roman  (after  Garrucci)  .  197 
Electioneering  Inscription  in  Rustic  Capi- 
tals (Vico  di  Tesmo)  ....  197 
Electioneering    Inscription    written    in 

Uncial I97 

The  Alphabet  (various  Letters)  .  .197 
Electioneering  Notices  ....  ao7 
Carpenters    (Painting    in     the     Naples 

Museum) 209 

Album  of  the  Building  of  Eumachia,  Wall 

of  the  Street  of  Abundance  .211 

Bronze  Bust  of  the  Banker  L.  Czcilius 

jucundns    ......    314 


Wax  Tablet.  Receipt  of  the  Banker 
L.  C.  Jucundus 

Terra-cotta  Money-boxes .... 

Inkstand,  Papyrus,  and  Tablet 

Fountain  of  the  Eagle  and  the  Hare, 
behind  which  is  the  Inn  of  Fortunata 

Paintings  in  Wine-shops  .        .        .     219 

Paintings  in  the  Thermopolium  of  the 
Street  of  Mercury      .... 

Public  Kitchen 

Bronze  Utensils  for  drawing  Wine  from 
the  Craters  ;  simpulum,  truz   . 

Small  Bronze  Utensils  for  decanting  and 
drawing  Liquids,  truellse    . 

Marble  Counter  in  the  Wine-shop  of  the 
Hermaphrodite  Bacchus,  Street  of 
NoU 

Hostelry  in  the  Way  of  Tombs 

Dish,    Chafing  ■   dishes,     and     Wine 
strainers 

The  Vestibule  of  a  Lupanar     . 

The  Via  del  Balcone  and  Via  del 
Lupanare 

Cella  meretricia        .... 

A  Provision  Dealer's 

Oil  Mill 

Amphorae,  dolia,  &c 

Earthenware  Vessels  and  Amphorae 

Scales,  libra 

Steel-yard,  statura     .... 

Bronze  Weights        .        .        .        • 

Compasses 

Various  Iron  Implements :  Plane,  Saw, 
Fork,  Bills,  &c 

Compasses,  Sailmakers'-needles.  Shuttles 

Fish-hooks  and  Weights  of  Plumb 
lines 

Hammer  and  Iron  Ploughshare 

Anchor,  Oar,  Piece  of  Bronze  Harness 

Iron  Tools 

Surgical   Instruments :   (i)   Pincers ;   (2; 
Vesical   Probe;    (3)    Box   of    Pills 
(4)    Injection   Probe ;    (s)    Pincers 
(6)  Cautery  ;  (7)  Cupping  Apparatus 
(8)  Cautery ;  (9)  Cautery ;  ( 10)  Clyster 
and    Clyster  -  pipe     with    a    Tap 
(11)  Forceps:  (12)   Bi valvular  Spec 
ulum ;    (13)   Pincers  for    Splinters 
(14)  Perforated  Pincers;    (15)  Quad 
rivalvular  Speculum;  (16)  Trivalvu 
lar  Speculum  ;  (17)  Cautery      . 


314 
ai5 
ai6 

218 
,  320 

221 
aaa 

223 

223 


394 
334 

225 
236 

337 
338 
339 
230 
330 

«3« 
333 

333 

a33 

a34 

a35 

236 

236 
356 

237 
337 


TEXT   ILLUSTRATIONS 


Xlll 


»  4^' 


»^ 


Bronze  Toy  (Common  Car) ;  Bronze  Toy 

(Cart) 

Cart,  Sarracum  (Painting) 

Litter,  lectica  (Terra-cotta  in  the  Naples 

Museum) 

A  Boat  (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museu  n) . 

Bakehouse         

Oven  of  a  Bakehouse        .... 
Sale  of  a  Slave  (Naples  Museum)     . 
Loaves  (Naples  Museum) 
Pastry  (Naples  Museum)  . 
Baker  distributing   Bread    (Painting    in 
the  Naples  Museum) .... 
Fullers  (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum) 
Scene  in  a   FuUouica  (Painting  in  the 
Naples  Museum)        .... 
Genii    fulling ;     Genii    combing    Cloth 
(Paintings    in    the    Hojse    of    the 

Vettii) 

The  Vats  of  a  Fullonica   .... 

A  Clothier  (Naples  Museum)    . 

A   Shoemaker  (Painting  in  the   Naples 

Museum) 

Genii  Coining  and  Forging  (Painting  in 

the  House  of  the  Vettii)     . 
The  Oil-press;  the  Forge  (Paintings  in  the 
House  of  the  Vettii)  .... 

A  Butcher's  Stall 

Soap  Factory  or  Washhouse    . 

Tannery 

Coppersmith 

Sellers  of  Ironware  (Painting  in  the  Naples 

Museum) 

Sellers  of  Hot  Drinks  and  Fruits  (Paint- 
ing in  the  Naples  Museum) 
Trained  Monkey  (Painting  in  the  Naples 

Museum) 

Archaic  Coins  of  Naples  .... 

Coins  of  Naples 

Tuscan  Atrium  (House  of  Siricus)   . 
The  House  of  Pansa         .... 
Entrance  to  the  Casa  del  Torello    . 
Reconstructed  Door,  Janua 
Cast  of  an  ancient  Door  .... 

Locks  and  Keys 

Keys 

Prothynim  of  the  House  of  Blandus 
Mosaic  in  the   Prothyrum  of  the  Casa 

dellOrso 

Tuscan  Atrium  and  Impluvium  (House 
9f  Cornelius  Rufus)    .... 


PAGE  PAGE 

Inner  projecting  Galleries  or  Corbels 
239  (Paintinf^  in  an  Qicus,  Region  IX. 
239  Insula  VII.) 260 

Tetrastyle    Atrium    (Casa    delle    Nozze 

239  d'Argento) 260 

239  Tetrastyle  Atrium  and  Compluvium        .  261 

241  Tetrastyle  Atrium  with  the  wooden  por- 

242  tions  reconstructed    ....  261 
242            Stove,   found   in    an   Atrium,   originally 

242  from  a  Caldarium      ....     262 

243  Cavaedium   of    the   Casa    dei    Capitelli 

Colorati  (or  the  Casa  di  Arriana)      .  263 
243           Corinthian   Atrium    (House  of  Epidius 

243  Rufus) 264 

Strong-box  of  Bronze,  Iron,  and  Wood    .  265 

244  Bronze  Distaff 266 

Ivory  Distaff 266 

Thimble 266 

244  A  Room  in  the  House  of  Holconius         .  267 

245  Beds  (fragments  of  Paintings  in  a  House 

246  in  Region  IX.  Insula  V.)    .         .         .  268 
Bronze  Bed  inlaid  with  Silver  (some  parts 

246  reconstructed  in  wood)      .        .        .  268 
Bronze  Seat 269 

247  Wooden  Seat,  reconstructed    .        .        .  269 
Bronze  Candelabra  and  Folding  Table    .  269 

247  Atrium  and  Tablinum  of  the  House  of 

248  Pansa         ......  270 

248  Bronze  Vessel 271 

249  Peristylium  (House  of  Holconius)     .         .  273 

249  Rhodian   Peristylium  of  the  Casa  delle 

Nozze  d'Argento        ....  275 

250  Apotheca  (House  of  Paquius  Proculus)   .  275 
Wooden    Cupboard    (Apotheca)    recon- 

250  structed 276 

Corinthian  CEcus  (Casa  di  Meleagro)       .  276 
250           Vaulted    (Ecus    (Region   IX.    Insula   I, 

250  Street  of  Stabiae)        ....  277 

250  Summer  Triclinium    in   the    House   of 

253  Sallust 278 

254  Summer  Triclinium  (Region  IX.  Insula 

254  V.  Street  of  Nola)      ....  279 

254  Mi.rble  Monopodium         ....  279 

255  Biclinium  (Region  I.  Insula  I.)         .         .  279 

255  Dog-kennel  near  an  Atrium  (Region  IX. 

256  i  Insula  V.) 280 

256  The  Kitchen  of  the  Vettii         .        .        .  280 
j      Latrinse 280 

257  I     Bronze  Brazier  to  place  in  the  Baths      .  281 
'     Bronze  Tap 281 

259  Bronze  Brazier 28 f 


M 


■  i 


Ttrr 


TEXT   ILLUSTIL\TIONS 


TEXT   ILLUSTRATIONS 


zv 


TACK 


rACB 


2S2 
284 


284 
285 

a85 
386 
a88 

289 
390 
agi 
293 
293 

293 
294 

294 

295 
296 
296 

297 
297 


Baths  in  the  Casa  delle  Nozze  d'Argento 

The  House  (Fig.  A,  Fig.  B)       .        .        . 

Modern    House    in    the    countr>-    near 
Pompei 

Solarium  (Painting  in  an  (Ecus  in  the 
House  of  the  Yettii)  .        .        .        • 

Staircase  (Region  VII.  Insula  VI.)  . 

Store-room  (Region  VIII.  Insula  IV.)      . 

Casa  del  Fauno 

Ostium  of  the  Casa  del  Fauno 

PeristyUum  of  the  Casa  del  Fauno  . 

Casa  del  Laberinto 

House  of  Lucretius 

Painting  in  the  House  of  Lucretius . 

Tablinum  and  Viridarium  of  the  House  of 
Lucretius 

Bronze  Couch  for  Meals,  Lectisternum  . 

The  Game  of  the  Lab>Tinth  (Graffito  in 
the  House  of  Lucretius)     . 

Terracotta  Lamps 

Villa  of  Diomedes 

Crypto-portico  of  the  Villa  of  Diomedes  . 

Cocks  of  Water-pipes        .... 

Casa  di  Castore  e  PoUuce 

House  of  the  Vettii 298 

Atrium  of  the  House  of  the  Vettii  and 

Stand  for  the  Strong-box  ...     298 
Interior  of  the  Casa  del  Balcone      .        .    299 

Viridarium  of  the  House  of  the  Vettii  .  300 
Lamp,  Lucema  pensile  .  .  •  •  30t 
Bronze  Lychnuchus .  .  .  •  •  302 
Bronze  Lamp-stand,  Lychnuchus  .  .  303 
Bronze   (Enochs,  Bronze  Vase,    Bronze 

(Enochs 303.  304 

Lamp,  Lucerna  pensile  ....  304 
Terracotta  Lamp  with  three  Wicks  .  304 
Woman  at  her  Toilette  (Painting  in  the 

Casa  di  Trittolemo)   .        .        .        .306 
Box  for  Paint.     Curling  Iron   .        .        .    306 

Box  of  Paint 307 

Woman    wearing    the  fascia    (fragment 
of     a   Painting    in     the    Casa     del 

Centenario) 3^7 

Bronze  Mirror 3^7 

Ivor>-  Pin  and  Hair-comb         .        .        .    308 

Gold  Ornaments 308 

Bronze  Candlestick 309 

Woman  withaVeil  (Painting  in  the  House 

of  Lucretius) 3^9 

Ivor>-  Comb 3^9 

Bronze  Kettle ^*' 


Bronze  Stove  with   a  reservoir  for  Hot 

Water,  and  a  Bain-Marie  .         .        •     3i» 

Moulds  for  Pastry 3** 

Bacchic  Dance  (Painting  in  the  Casa  del 

Centenario) 3*2 

Canephora 312 

Dancing-girl 312 

Rhyton 31a 

A  Meal  (Painting  from  Herculaneum)     .    312 

Symposiums 313 

Kitchen  Utensils;  Dish  for  Eggs,  Moulds 
for  Pastr>%  Spoons,  Strainers,  Knives, 
Fire-dog,  Saucepan,  Kettle        .        .    314 
Dancers  (Painting  in  the  House  of  Hol- 

conius) 315 

Silver  V^ase  (Treisure  from  Bosco  Reale)  315 
Tufa  Capital  in  the  Basilica  .  .  .  319 
Marble  Capitals  ....  320,  321 
Stucco  Capital  in  the  Egyptian  Style     •    32a 

Opus  Reticulatum 323 

Decoration  :  Third  Style,  Black   Dado ; 
Red  Panels  ;  White,  Red  and  Black 
Frieze  (Region  IX.  Insula  VII.)         .    325 
Candelabrum  Motives  in  Decoration        .    327 
(Ecus  with   White   Decoration   (Fourth 

Style  A.D.  63) 338 

Decoration,  Fourth  Style  .         .     329 

Oriental  Motives  (House  of  the  Vettii)  330,  331 
Mosaic  Column  (Naples  Museum)  .  .  33a 
The   Painter    (Painting    in    the    Naples 

Museum) 335 

Allegory  of  Painting  (Painting  from  the 

Macellum) 335 

Preparing  the  Walls  (Painting  in  the 
Naples  Museum)  .... 
The  Woman  Artist  (Painting  in  the 
Naples  Museum)  .... 
Bowl  for  grinding  Colours 
Sketch  on  a  Wall  (Region   VI.    Insula 

XIV.) 

Italiot  Painting  found  at  Ruvo 
Painting  from  the  Farnesina  (Rome) 
The  Judgment  of  Paris  (Painting  in  the 
House  of  Holconius) .... 
The  Judgment  of  Paris     .... 


33S 

337 
337 

341 
343 

344 

344 
345 

Venus  and  Urania 345 

346 
346 
347 


Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum 

Pelias  and  his  Daughters  .... 

Pan  and  the  Muses 

Iphigenia  descending  from  the  Temple 
(Paintingfrom  the  House  of  Jucundus) 


348 


l-ACE 

The   Forsaken   Ariadne  (Region  IX.  In- 
sula II.) 348 

The    Sacrifice    of    Iphigenia    (Painting 

from  the  House  of  the  Tragic  Poet) .  349 
Medza   (Paintings   in   the   Naples    Mu- 
seum)    350 

Orpheus  (Painting  in  the  Casa  di  Orfeo)  352 
The  wounded  Adonis   (Painting  in   the 

Casa  di  Adone) 353 

Niobe  and  her  Companions      .         .        .  354 

Girls  playing  Knuckle-bones    .        .        .  355 
Achilles  discovered  by  Ulysses  (Mosaic 

in  theJCasa  di  Apollo)        .        .        .  355 

Achilles  discovered  by  Ulysses  (Painting)  356 

Mars  and  Venus 357 

The  Cortfege  of    Love  (Painting  in  the 

House  of  the  Vettii)  ....  358 

Painting  in  the  House  of  the  Vettii  .         .  358 
Hermaphrodite  Bacchus  (Painting  in  the 

Casa  del  Centenario)          .        .        .  358 
Psyches  (Painting  in  the  House  of  the 

Vettii) 359 

Hermaphrodite 359 

Woman  and  Satyr 360 

Dancing  Group 360 

Dancing   Canephoros,     Dancing    Cane- 

phoros,  A  Dancer       ....  360 

A  Dancer 361 

The  Three  Graces 361 

Centaur  and  Bacchante  (Painting  from 

Cicero's  Villa) 362 

Hymen  (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum)  363 
Greek  Charity  (Painting  in  the  Naples 

Museum) 364 

The   Dealer  in  Cupids    (Painting  from 

Stabiae) 364 

The    Toilette   (Painting    from     Hercu- 
laneum)        365 

Portraits  of  the  Baker  Paquius  Proculus 

and  his  Wife 366 

Portraits  (Region  IX.  Insula  V.  No.  18)    .  367 
Portraits  (Painting  in  the  House  of  Hol- 
conius)          367 

Portrait  (Painting,  Region  VII.  Insula  II. 

No.  6) 368 

Painting  in  the  House  of  Lucretius .  368 

Paintings  in  the  House  of  Holconius       .  369 

Painting  (Region  I.  Insula  II.  No.  3)        .  370 

Portrait  (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum)  370 
Tibicen  (Painting,  Region  IX.  Insula  II. 

No.  16) 371 


PA<» 
371 
371 

373 


Athlete  (Painting,  Region  IX.  Insula  VI.) 
Painted  Head  of  Silenus  .... 
Paintings  of  Still  Life  .... 
Decorative  Plants  (Painting  in  the  House 

of  Epidius  Sabinus)    ....  374 
A  Wild  Boar  Hunt  (Painting  in  the  House 

of  the  Vettii) 374 

Crane  and  Serpent  (Painting  in  the  Casa 

di  Adone) 374 

/"Cocks,  Hen,  and  Fish  (Paintings  in  the"| 

•J         Casa  del  Centenario)    .        .         .-  375 
(,Dog  (Painting  in  the  Casa  di  Adone)  j 
Egyptian  Landscape  (Painting  in  a  House 

in  Region  IX.  Insula  V.)    .         .         .  376 
Egyptian  Landscape  (Painting  in  a  House 

in  Region  IX.  Insula  V.)    .        .        .  376 

Parody  of  the  Judgment  of  Solomon        .  377 

Parody  of  the  Story  of  Jonah  .        .        .  377 
Egyptian   Landscape    (Painting  in    the 

Casa  di  Apollo) 377 

Harbour  (Painting   in    the    Casa   della 

Piccola  Fontana)        ....  378 
Foreign  Landscape  (Painting  in  the  Casa 

del  Centenario) 378 

Mosaics  in  the  Villa  of  Diomedes    .      380,  383 

Mosaic  oi  the  Battle  of  Arbela  .        .        .  381 

A  Mosaic  (after  Mazois)    ....  381 

Mosaic  Portrait  (Naples  Museum)    .        .  38a 
Mosaic  in  the  Prothyrum  of  the  House 

of  the  Tragic  Poet      ....  382 

Mosaic  Frieze  of  the  Battle  of  A  rbela       .  383 

The  Doryphorus  of  Polycletus  .         .        .  387 

Bacchus  (Bronze  Statue) ....  388 

Lycian  Apollo  (Marble  Statue)         .        .  388 

Dancing  Faun  (Bronze  Statuette)    .        .  389 

Bronze  Head 389 

Bronze  Statuette  of  Silenus  drunk  .        .  390 

Bronze  Animals 390 

Satyr  with  the  Wine-skin         .        .        .  391 
Bronze    Group    of     Hercules    and    the 

Doe 391 

Bronze  Statuette  of  Bacchus  and  Ampelus  392 
Bronze  Statuette  of  Apollo  in  the  revived 

Archaic  Style 39a 

Polychrome  Marble  Statue  of  Diana  in 

the  revived  Archaic  Style .        .  393 

Statue  of  Venus  in  Polychrome  Marble   .  394 

Bronze  Lamp-holder        ....  395 

Marble  Table 396 

Bronze  Cupid 396 

Marble  Bust  of  a  Pompeian  Woman        .  396 


XVI 


TEXT    ILLUSTRATIONS 


PACK 


The  Feet  of  the  Cartibulum  of  Cornelius 

Rufus 397 

Bronze  Putto  (Torch-bearer)    .        .        .  397 

Marble  Busts  of  Pompeian  Women  .  397 

Marble  Foot  of  a  Table  (Monopodium)    .  398 
Marble   Statue  of  Octavia,   Priestess  of 

Augustus 398 

Marble  Statue  of  Holconius  Rufus  .  .  399 
Marble  Bust  of  Cornelius  Rufus  .  .  399 
Terracotta  Statue  of  a  Child  ...  400 
Ephebus  wearing  the  Himation  .  401 
Terra  cotta  Statue  of  a  Greek  Philo- 
sopher           40' 

Telamon  supporting  a  Table    .        .        .  40* 
Terracotta  Lamp  coated  with  a  Metallic 

Glaze,  Lucema  bylichnis  .  .  402 

Bas-relief   of    Terracotta    (Region   VI. 

Insula  XV.) 402 

Gargoyle  of  a  Gutter,  Terracotta    .        .  40a 

Polychrome  Stucco-work ....  404 
Stucco-work  in  the  Apodyterium  of  the 

Baths  of  the  Forum    ....  405 

Stucco  Figure  in  the  Naples  Museum      .  406 
Stucco  Group  in    the   Megarum  of  the 

Temple  of  Isis 406 

Alexandrian  Head 4°^ 


r.\«.« 

Drinkingcup,  Scyphus  (Naples  Museum)  408 

Silver  Cantharus M*9 

Silver  Drinkingcup,  Cantharus       .        .  409 

Silver  Drinkingcup,  Modiolus .  .  409 

Cast  of  a   Body  from  the  Countr>-  Villa 

at  Bosco  Reale 4»o 

Vessel  for  pouring  out  Wine,  Lagona      .  410 

Drinkingcup,  Scyphus     ....  410 
Silver  Bowl,  with  relief  representing  the 

City  of  Alexandria  .  •  4ti 

Bronze  Lamp-holder,  Lychnuchus  .        .  41a 

Bronze  Door-knocker  with  Silver  Eyes   .  412 
Bronze  Candelabrum        .        .        .        .413 

Bronze  Lamp 4*3 

Bronze  Handle  of  a  Vessel.  Hyperborean 

Apollo 4»3 

Bronze  Vase,    Bronze    Crater,    Bronze 

Lamp 414 

Gold  Brooch  found  on  one  of  the  Skele- 
tons in  the  Villa  of  Diomedes   .        •  4'5 

Glass-ware 4^6,417 

Gold  Jewellery  found  on  the  Skeletons  in 

the  Villa  of  Diomedes  .  416 

Drinking-glasses 4*^ 

Phoenician  Glass  Alabastruni   .        .        .  417 

Vase  of  Blue  and  White  Glass         .        .  417 


v' 


.1 


PART  I 


DESTRUCTION  OF  POMPEI  AND  THE  EXCAVATIONS 


mmt 


»: 


I 


Pompei  from  the  Gale  of  Stabiae 


CAMPANIA— ITS  CLIMATE  AND  ITS  CHARM— OPINIONS  OF 

ANCIENT  WRITERS 

THE  Campania  of  ancient  times  is  the  Campania  of  to-day  :  a  land 
bathed  in  sunlight,  where  the  drowsy  line  of  the  mountains  enfolds 
the  horizon  with  delicate  curves,  and  where  the  snowy  peaks  of 
winter  blend  into  the  harmony  of  the  opalescent  distance  ;  a  land  where  the 
pure  atmosphere  and  the  breath  of  the  warm  air  hover  caressingly  over  the 
fields,  the  green  champaign  land,  and  the  golden  or  sombre  trees  ;  and 
where  Nature  is  vocal  with  the  song  of  birds  of  passage,  blending  into 
the  plaintive  murmur  of  waves  or  the  deep-toned  roll  of  breakers  on  the 

neighbouring  beach. 

All  is  unchanged  save  the  mountain  to  the  north,  gloomy  now  where 
it  once  was  green  and  smiling.  From  its  crest  rises  a  long  trail  of 
smoke ;  for  this  is  the  force  that  suddenly  laid  waste  the  land  with  fire 
and  water.  But  Nature  reasserted  her  rights  ;  fields,  trees,  and  meadows 
appeared  again,  and  covered  the  desert,  and  from  the  bed  of  ashes  that 
lay  on  the  land  like  a  shroud — from  death  itself — a  new  life  has  risen. 

This  enchanting  land  has  been  sung  by  ancient  writers  in  lines  that 
are   often   all   too  brief.     The  poets  of  the  age  of  fable  say  that  it  was 


•  .    t 
i 


— f--  — 


^1 


4  POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 

originally  inhabited  by  anthropophagi,  and  that  Sirens  dwelt  on  the  shores 
of  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea — among  them  Circe  the  enchantress,  Scylla  and 
Charybdis,  the  most  cruel  of  their  brood ;  fantastic  symbols  of  the  reefs 
and  storms  and  whirlpools  that  brought  death  to  travellers  in  face  of  the 
fair  shores  they  had  hardly  seen.  Volcanic  countries  have  always  given 
birth  to  gloomy  myths.  Diodorus  Siculus  says  that  the  people  of  this 
region  were  so  strong  that  they  were  looked  upon  as  Titans,  sons  of  the 
Earth. 

In  ancient  times  the  Bay  of  Naples  was  called  the  Bay  of  the  Crater, 
and  was  the  centre  of  the  Campi  PhUgrai  of  the  Vesuvian  region. 
Perhaps  the  gulf  itself  is  an  immense  volcano  that  the  sea  has  invaded  and 
covered,  and  Vesuvius,  Epomeo  in  Ischia,  and  the  many  craters  near 
Pozzuoli,  may  be  only  so  many  cones  of  eruption. 

Pompei  is  a  city  of  very  ancient  lineage.  Strabo  says  that  the  Pelas- 
gians  and  Oscans,  who  possessed  Pompei  and  Herculaneum.  ascribed  the 
foundation  of  the  sister  cities  to  Hercules.  We  know  that  at  the  time 
of  the  foundation  of  Cumae  and  Parthenope  the  Greeks  had  other  settle- 
ments on  the  coast  of  Magna  Graicia,  where  they  introduced  their  taste 
for  art  and  commerce.  Later  on  the  Etruscans  took  possession  of  the 
Campi  Phlegrici,  and  the  cities  of  Campania,  of  which  Capua  was  the  capital, 
formed  a  federation.  The  Campanians,  enervated  by  their  life  of  pleasure 
and  luxury,  fell  under  the  yoke  of  the  Samnites,  who  in  their  turn  were 
overcome  by  the  Romans ;  for  from  3 1 5  to  290  B.C.  Rome  was  at  war  with 
the  Samnites  of  Campania,  who  finally  submitted  to  her  rule  in  270.  It 
was  shortly  after  the  Social  War,  in  the  year  80  B.C.,  that  Sulla  reduced 
Pompei  to  a  7mlitary  colony,  under  the  name  Colonia  Veneria  Cornelia. 
The  conquerors  lived  outside  the  town,  in  the  suburb  which  was  known 
later  on  as  the  Pagus  Augustus  Felix.  Even  under  Roman  domination, 
however,  the  Campanian  cities  long  remained  municipia,  or  free  boroughs, 
and  administered  their  own  affairs.  Under  Nero  there  was  a  considerable 
increase  in  the  population,  and,  following  the  example  of  Rome,  the  city 


DESTRUCTION   OF   POMPEI   AND   THE    EXCAVATIONS 


5 


had     its    duumvirs    and    decurions.       Pompei     had     become    a    Roman 
colony. 

The  port  of  Pompei,  the  entrepot  of  all  the  country  round,  was 
formed  by  the  mouth  of  the  Sarnus,  navigable  in  ancient  times.  It  could 
receive  a  fleet,  and  Publius  Cornelius  lay  at  anchor  there.  On  the  shore 
were  the  Pompeian  Marshes  mentioned  by  Columella,  and  the  Salt-Rocks  of 
Hercules  were  situated  near  the  rock  called  Hercules'  Shoulder,  which  now 
bears  the* name  oi  Isoletta  di  Rivigliano,  and  can  be  distinctly  seen  from 
Pompei. 

Many  great  men  lived  at  Pompei.  Augustus  came  here  to  visit 
Cicero,  who  had  such  a  charming  villa  that  he  declared  "  Tusculum  et 
Pompeianum  valde  ?ne  delectant."  It  was  here  the  orator  wrote  his  essay 
De  Officiis,  and  in  his  praises  of  Campania,  and  the  Campanian  towns, 
so  wealthy,  well-built,  and  beautiful,  that  their  citizens  could  afford  to  laugh 
at  the  pcor  cities  of  Latium,  he  mentions  Pompei. 

Phaedrus,  the  writer  of  fables,  took  refuge  in  Pompei  to  escape  the 
persecution  of  Sejanus  and  Tiberius.  Claudius  had  a  country-house  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  Suetonius  relates  that  one  of  the  Emperor's  sons 
died  there,  choked  by  a  pear  that  he  had  thrown  in  the  air  and  caught  in 
his  mouth.  Statius  wrote  that  "  all  things  conspire  to  make  life  pleasant 
in  this  land,  where  the  summers  are  cool  and  the  winters  warm,  and  where 
the  sea  dies  away  gently  as  it  kisses  the  shore." 

Florus  also  declares  it  to  be  not  only  the  loveliest  spot  in  Italy,  but  in 
the  world,  and  Seneca  recalls  the  pleasant  memory  of  his  stay  at  Pompei, 
which  was  famed  among  the  Romans  for  its  "roses,  its  wines,  and  its 
pleasures." 

The  city  itself,  situated  about  five  miles  from  the  crater  of  Vesuvius, 
was  built  on  a  rock  of  ancient  lava,  the  terraces  of  which  commanded  a 
wide  view  of  the  valley  of  the  Sarnus  and  of  the  mountains  of  Stabiai, 
washed  by  those  waters  in  which  Capri  rears  its  giant  head  on  the  horizon 
of  the  bay. 


^£^^^r 


f 


S     i 


]|! 


I 


II 


THE  FIRST  EARTHQUAKE  OF  THE  YEAR  63-THE  REBUILDING 

OF  THE  TOWN 

POMPEI,    which   both   Tacitus  and   Seneca   describe  as    ••famous," 
though   it   had  played  no  great  part  in  history,   had  reached  the 
height  of  its  prosperity.     Men  went  there  to  find  quiet  and  leisure 
for  their  studies,  far  from   the  strife  and  turmoil  of  public  life,  and  many, 
a<Tain    came  to  live  a  life  of  pleasure  at  their  ease.     Such  peaceful  joys 
were  not  to  be  long-lived.     On  February  5,  63  a.d.,  an   earthquake  shook 
the  countryside.     As  Seneca  tells  the  tale  :  "  Pompei,  an  important  town 
of  Campania,  lying  where  the  sea  has  hollowed   a   smiling   bay  between 
Cape    Surrentum   and    Stabiae    on    the    one   side,  and    Herculaneum   on 
the  other,  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  that  wasted  all  the  country 
round.     It  was  in  winter,  an  unusual  time  for  these  visitations,  according 
to   tradition.     The  catastrophe  happened  on  the  nones   of   February,   in 
the  consulate  of   Regulus  and  Virginius.     Campania,   which,   in  spite  of 
alarms,  had  escaped  actual   danger  hitherto,  and  had  feared  rather  than 
suffered  from  the  scourge,  was  cruelly  laid  waste  on  this  occasion.     Not 
only  Pompei,  but  Herculaneum  too,  was  partially  destroyed,  and  whatever 
of  it   is  left  standing  is  much  damaged.      The  colony  of  Nuceria,  near 
Pompei,    though   it   has   suffered   less,    did    not    altogether    escape.      At 
Naples  many  private  houses  were  wrecked,  but  the  public  buildings  are 
left  standing.     Villas  were  shaken  to  their  foundations,  and  men  say  that 
a  flock  of  six  hundred  sheep  was  destroyed,  statues  were  rent  and  broken, 


.K 


'  I  • 


'A 


DESTRUCTION    OF   POMPEI   AND    THE    EXCAVATIONS  7 

and  poor  wretches  are  to  be  seen  in  the  country  who  have  lost  their  reason 
under  the  stress  of  their  terror." 

The  principal  buildings  of  Pompei  were  destroyed  and  its  houses  were 
in  ruins.  Nearly  all  these  buildings  were  restored  in  the  style  of  the  day — 
the  style  of  Rome  and  Nero ;  and  the  Greek  buildings  that  were  the  pride 
of  the  city  were  not  all  rebuilt.  Some  ruins  of  these  remain,  which  we 
will  notice  later  on."  Many  old  vases  of  the  best  periods  were  destroyed, 
owing  to -their  fragility,  and  many  paintings  by  Greek  artists  have  dis- 
appeared without  leaving  a  trace.  But  there  still  remain  many  examples 
beautiful  enough  to  interest  both  artists  and  archaeologists,  and  to  enable 
them  to  appreciate  that  Alexandrian  art  which,  in  spite  of  its  faults,  most 
closely  reflects  the  art  of  Greece. 

Many  of  the  houses  in  Pompei  were  hastily  rebuilt,  and  we  often 
find  fragments  of  amphorae  in  the  masonry  of  the  walls,  and  broken  bits 
of  marble  embedded  in  the  mortar ;  indeed,  in  one  place,  an  amphora 
supplies  the  place  of  a  beam  in  the  frame  of  a  door.  Buildings  were 
restored ;  the  temple  roof  sheltered  the  gods  again,  and  sacrifices  were 
offered  to  propitiate  their  anger.  The  light-hearted  Pompeians  took  up 
their  pleasant  life  once  more,  under  the  blue  sky  of  their  country,  feeling 
only  occasional  alarms  that  were  quickly  forgotten. 

At  this  time  Vesuvius  is  described  by  Plutarch  and  Strabo  as  a  mountain 
with  one  peak,  lying  in  a  very  fertile  country,  its  slopes  green  with  plants 
and  shrubs  and  vines,  except  on  the  summit,  which  was  almost  entirely  flat 
and  barren,  and  scarred  with  fire.  The  caverns  there,  with  their  deep 
fissures,  the  dark,  calcined,  ash-coloured  rocks,  were  a  sufficient  proof 
that  the  mountain  was  a  volcano,  extinct  from  want  of  fuel.  In  64,  Tacitus 
mentions  another  earthquake  which  wrecked  the  theatre  at  Naples,  where 
Nero  was  singing,  but  the  Emperor  and  the  audience  escaped  unhurt. 


"^■■^ 


SK 


J 


I 


I 


III 


THE  ERUPTION  OF  VESUVIUS  IN  THE  YEAR  79-PLINV'S  TWO 

LETTERS 

THESE  repeated  and  violent  shocks  were  a  warning  calling  to  mind 
the  volcanic  origin  of  the  Campi  Phlegrcei,  and  after  sixteen  years  of 
comparative  peace,  on  August  23,  79  a.d.,  in  the  reign  of  Titus,  the 
awful  drama  began.  The  fires  beneath  the  earth  broke  loose,  and 
Vesuvius  threw  up  torrents  of  lava,  mud,  and  burning  ashes.  In  a  few 
days  Campania  was  a  desert.  Herculaneum,  Retina,  Oplontis,  Tegianum, 
Taurania,  Cosa,  Vesiris.  Stable,  and  Pompei  were  buried  out  of  sight 
The  stream  of  lava  passed  by  Pompei,  which  stood  on  a  little  hill  of 
tufa,  but  the  ashes  and  pumice-stones  (lapilli)  covered  it  like  a  grave. 

Pliny  the  younger,  an  eye-witness  of  the  catastrophe,  wrote  to  Tacitus 
to  give  him  the  details  of  the  death  of  his  uncle,  the  naturalist,  who  was 
one  of  its  victims.  '^  You  ask  me  to  tell  you  [he  writes]  how  my  uncle 
met  his  death,  so  that  you  may  write  a  true  and  detailed  account  of  it  for 
future  generations.  ...  He  was  at  Misenum,  in  command  of  the  fleet. 
On  the  ninth  day  before  the  kalends  of  December,  about  the  seventh 
hour,  my  mother  showed  me  a  cloud  rising,  of  strange  shape  and  extra- 
ordinary size.  From  a  distance  it  was  difficult  to  see  distinctly  from  what 
mountain  this  cloud  proceeded  ;  afterwards  we  found  that  it  was  from 
Vesuvius.  It  was  most  like  a  pine-tree  in  shape,  for  it  had  the  appearance 
of  a  very  large  and  towering  trunk  that  spread  into  a  number  of  branches. 
I  imagine    that  it  was  driven  up  by  a   violent  blast,  and  that  then,  left 


1.-^' 


t 


(I 


DESTRUCTION    OF   POMPEI    AND   THE   EXCAVATIONS  9 

without  support  as  the  gust  died  away,  it  was  sinking  by  its  own 
weight,  and  dissolving  breadth-wise.  It  was  now  white,  now  dark, 
and  spotted  with  the  earth  and  ashes  carried  up  in  its  coursej  My 
uncle,  as  a  natural  philosopher,  considered  the  phenomenon  of  great 
interest,  and  worth  closer  study.  He  ordered  a  cutter  to  be  got 
ready.  .  .  . 

"  He  was  just  leaving  his  house  when  he  received  a  message  from 
Rectina,  the  wife  of  Taxus,  who  was  terrified  by  the  danger  that  threatened 
her ;  for  her  house  lay  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  and  there  was  no  way 
of  escape  from  it  except  by  sea.  She  implored  him  to  come  to  her  rescue. 
...  He  ordered  quadriremes  to  be  got  ready,  and  went  on  board  to 
carry  help,  not  to  Rectina  alone,  but  to  many  others,  for  this  coast  is  a 
pleasant  place,  and  much  frequented.  He  courted  the  danger  from  which 
others  fled,  and  made  straight  for  it  without  a  thought  of  fear,  dictating, 
and  making  notes  of  all  the  peculiar  features  and  phases  of  the  phenomenon 
as  he  observed  them. 

•*  Already  a  shower  of  ashes  was  falling  on  the  vessels,  and  the  nearer 
they  approached,  the  hotter  and  thicker  these  became.  Then  followed  a 
hail  of  stones  and  pebbles,  blackened,  calcined,  and  broken  by  fire.  The 
bottom  of  the  sea  was  heaved  up  suddenly,  and  a  fall  of  rock  from  the 
mountain  side  made  it  impossible  to  go  on  shore. 

•'  He  hesitated  a  moment  whether  he  should  return,  but  when  the 
pilot  advised  him  to  do  so  he  answered  :  '  Fortune  favours  the  brave  ;  let 
us  steer  for  Pomponianus'  house.'  Pomponianus  lived  at  Stabiae,  on  the 
other  side  of  the  bay,  for  the  sea  runs  up  the  coast  in  creeks  that  curve  in 
and  out  almost  imperceptibly.  There  the  danger  was  not  so  imminent, 
though  evident  enough,  and  as  it  hourly  increased,  Pomponianus  had  had 
his  luggage  carried  on  board  ship,  and  resolved  to  set  sail  directly  the 
adverse  wind  fell.  My  uncle,  with  the  wind  in  his  favour,  landed,  and 
found  his  friend  unnerved  with  fear,  embraced  him,  bade  him  take  heart,  and 
to  reassure  him  by  his  own  quiet  courage,  asked  to  be  taken  to  the  bath.  .  .  . 

B 


I 
4 

I 


lO 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


DESTRUCTION   OF   POMPEI   AND   THE    EXCAVATIONS 


II 


J 


I 

i 

1 
I 

I 


•*  Meantime,  however,  broad  sheets  of  fire  were  to  be  seen  shining 
on  many  parts  of  the  mountain,  and  great  flames  broke  out  and  flashed 
with  a  brightness  intensified  by  the  darkness  of  the  night. 

"  To  reassure  his  hosts,  my  uncle  declared  that  the  peasants  had  left 
fires  in  their  homes,  in  their  headlong  flight,  and  that  it  was  these  houses 
that  were  burning  in  the  deserted  country.     Then  he  went  to  rest.  .  .  . 
But  the  court  that  led  to  his  room  was  so  choked  with  ashes  and  pumice- 
stones  that,  if  he  had  stayed  there  longer,  he  would  not  have  been  able 
to  get  out     He  was  roused,  and  went  to  rejoin   Pomponianus  and  the 
others  who  had  kept  watch.     They  discussed  whether  it  would  be  wiser 
to  stay  in  the  house  or  wander  into  the  open  country,  for  the  buildings 
were  swaying  from  the  repeated  and  violent  shocks,  and  almost  wrenched 
from  their  foundations.     They  seemed  to  rock  to  and  fro,  and  then  return 
to   their  original   position.      On   the   other   hand,   in   the   open   air,  they 
would  be  exposed  to  the  danger  of  pumice-stones  falling  on  them,  though 
these  stones  were  light,  being  dried  up  by  fire.     In  this  choice  of  evils  they 
decided  on  the  latter.     They  tied  cushions  on  their  heads  with  cloths  as  a 
protection  against  the  falling  stones.     Day  had  begun  to  dawn  elsewhere, 
but  there  it  was  blackest  night,  broken  only  by  numberless  torches  and 
flames  of  all  kinds.     They  decided  to  go  down  to  the  shore  to  see  if  they 
could  embark,  but  there  was  still  a  heavy  sea  and  a  contrary  wind     There 
my  uncle  stretched  himself  on  a  sheet  and  lay  down,  and  several  times  asked 
for  cold  water,  and  drank  some.     Then  the  flames,  and  the  smell  of  sulphur 
that  gave  warning  of  their  approach,  drove  the  others  away  and  roused  him. 
He  leant  on  two  slaves,  and  got  up,  but  fell  down  suddenly.     I  believe  that 
the  heavy  vapour  choked  him,  for  his  throat  was  always  ver)'  small  and  weak, 
and  he  often  had  a  difficulty  in  breathing.     When  daylight  returned  on  the 
third  morning  after  the  last  day  of  his  life,  his  body  was  found,  with  the  clothes 
he  had  last  worn,  untouched  and  unharmed.    He  lay  like  a  man  asleep  rather 
than  like  one  dead.  .  .  .    My  mother  and  I  were  at  Misenum  all  the  time."  * 

•  Pliny,  Book  VI.,  Letter  xvi. 


In  a  second  letter  we  find  the  following  description :  "  We  had  felt 
the  vibration  of  an  earthquake  for  the  past  few  days  without  its  causing 
us  any  great  uneasiness,  for  we  are  used  to  this  in  Campania.  But 
this  night  the  shocks  were  so  violent  that  things  were  overturned,  and 
not  merely  shaken.  My  mother  ran  to  my  room,  and  we  sat  in  the 
open  space  before  our  house, 
a  narrow  strip  of  land  that 
lay  between  it  and  the  sea. 
...  It  was  then  the  first 
hour,  but  the  light  was  still 
faint  and  sickly.  All  the 
surrounding  buildings  were 
shaken,  and  though  we  were 
in  the  open,  the  place  was  so 
narrow  that  there  was  the 
risk  (or  rather  the  certainty) 
of  being  buried  under  the 
ruins.  1 1  was  then  we  decided 
to  quit  the  town.  .  .  .     The 

crowd  followed  us,   mad  with  Map  of  the  Bay  of  Naples 

fear.  In  the  midst  of  the  dangers  that  threatened  us  many  curious  sights 
met  our  eyes,  and  a  thousand  terrors  assailed  us.  The  carriages  we  had 
sent  on  in  advance  were  driven  in  opposite  directions,  though  the  ground 
was  quite  flat,  and  it  was  impossible  to  make  them  stand  still,  even  by 
steadying  them  with  stones.  Then,  the  sea  was  ebbing  out,  apparently 
driven  back  by  the  shock  of  the  earthquake ;  at  any  rate,  the  shore 
was  much  extended,  and  a  great  number  of  marine  animals  were  left 
high  and  dry  on  the  beach.  We  could  now  see  a  black  lowering  cloud, 
torn  by  a  blast  of  fire  that  furrowed  it  with  rapid  zigzag  lines,  and  as  it 
opened  It  disclosed  long  trails  of  fire,  like  forked  lightning,  only  much 
larger.     Soon  afterwards  the  cloud  came  down  and  covered  the  sea  and 


It 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


i 


hid  the  Isle  of  Capraea  from  sight.  The  promontory  of  Misenum  dis- 
appeared .  .  .  and  a  shower  of  ashes  began  to  drop  (only  a  scanty  shower 
as  yet) ;  then  total  darkness  fell  over  all."  * 

Pliny  then  describes  the  lamentations  of  the  fugitives,  their  curses  on 
the  gods,  their  cries  that  it  was  the  last  night  of  the  world,  the  coming  of 
eternal  night.  There  was  such  a  thick  fall  of  ashes  that  he  was  obliged 
to  shake  them  off,  for  fear  of  being  stifled  by  their  weight  "  At  last  [he 
writes]  the  darkness  dispersed  into  a  mist  or  smoke,  soon  the  daylight 
appeared,  and  then  the  sun,  which  looked  livid,  and  darkened  as  though  by 
an  eclipse  Everything  was  changed,  as  we  looked  out  on  the  world  with 
dimmed  eyes.  The  ashes  had  covered  all  things  as  with  a  carpet  of 
snow." 

"  Ah,  see  Vesuvius  [writes  Martial],  that  once  wore  a  crown  of  green 
vines,  whose  generous  fruit  flooded  our  overflowing  presses!  See  the 
slopes  that  Bacchus  loved  more  than  the  hills  of  Nysa!  But  now  the 
satyrs  danced  on  the  hill ;  it  was  the  sfeat  of  Venus,  dearer  to  her  than 
Lacedaemon,  and  honoured  by  the  name  of  Hercules.  And  now  the 
flames  have  destroyed  all,  'tis  all  buried  under  drifts  of  ashes!  The 
gods  themselves  might  wish  their  power  had  not  so  prevailed!" 

•  Pliny,  Book  VI.,  Letter  xx. 


IV 


THE  STRATA  FORMED  BY  THE  ERUPTION— IMPRINTS  OF 

HUMAN  BODIES 

WH  E  N  we  examine  the  strata  formed  by  the  eruption,  we  see  that 
Pompei  was  first  covered  by  a  bed  of  pumice-stone  ten  feet  deep, 
the  inequalities  of  which  were  then  levelled  by  a  deluge  of  fine 
ashes.     These  enveloping  strata  vary  from  ten  feet  to  rather  more  than 
seventeen  feet,  and   the   upper   layers   of  the  soil  of  the  country  round 
Pompei  to-day  are  due  to  later  eruptions.* 

Contrary  to  the  current  belief,  Pompei  was  not  destroyed  by  fire,  which 
only  spread  in  a  few  places  in  the  town.  Beul^t  thinks  that  the  condition 
of  the  beams  and  wooden  door-posts,  which  are  found  in  dust  among  the 

•  In  1818,  Lyell,  the  geologist,  drew  up  a  section   plan  of  the  ground  laid  open    by  the 
excavations.    Near  the  amphitheatre  he  found  the  following  strata,  in  the  natural  order  of  their 

deposition : 

1.  Pumice-stones  and  white  lapilli     ....  2-7559  inches. 

2.  Solid  grey  tufa 2-7559       t» 

3.  Layer  of  whitish  lapilli -7874       n 

4.  Dark  earthy  tufa,  with  lapilli  deposited  in  layers  56.6928        „ 
"     5.  Scoriae  in  small  fragments  and  white  lapilli          .  2.7559       „ 

6.  Blackish    conglomerate    tufa    full    of    pisolithic 

globules     ....••••      18.1102       tf 

7.  Vegetable  earth. 

8.  Black  shiny  sand  from  the  eruption  of  1822  con- 

taining small  crystals 2-7559       »t 

122.3497 
That  is,  rather  more  than  ten  feet.    In  the  work,  Pompei  t  la  regione  sotUrata  dal  Vesuvio  (Naples, 
1879),  we  get  approximately  the  same  results  from  an  examination  of  strata, 
f  Le  Drame  cU  Vesuve  (Paris). 


y 


i 

t 


P5SfF 


«4 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


DESTRUCTION    OF   POMPEI   AND   THE   EXCAVATIONS 


n 


i 


V  - 


I 


it 


», 


ashes,  is  due  only  to  the  continual  damp  of  centuries,  and  he  draws 
attention  to  the  fact  that  those  portions  of  the  beams  that  are  pierced  by 
wedges  and  nails  have  been  preserved  by  oxide  of  iron.  The  fire  spread 
in  several  places,   however,  and  the  walls  must   have    become  very  hot 


A  Man  (Museum  of  Pompeii 

under  the  action  of  the  warm  ashes :  the  coating  of  wax  on  the  walls 
has  in  many  cases  disappeared,  and  yellow  pigments  have  turned  red  from 
the  heat. 

In  spite  of  the  violence  of  the  earthquake,  the  houses  are  in  fairly 


A  Skeleton  embedded  in  Ashes 


good  preservation,  for  though  the  roofs  fell  in,  and  the  upper  storeys 
(with  the  exception  of  a  few  it  was  possible  to  restore),  they  resisted  for 
some  time.  We  may  note  this  in  the  course  of  the  excavations  now  going 
on,  for  the  tiles  of  the  roofs  are  not  often  found  lying  on  the  floor 
of  the  house,  but  are  generally  embedded  in  the  ashes  at  a  certain 
height  above  the  lapilli.     We  may  infer  that  the  ashes  and  stone  sifted 


into  the  rooms  before  the  roofs  fell  in,  and  Pliny's  account  confirms  this 
hypothesis. 

From  his  first  letter  to  Tacitus  we  see  that 
at  Stabiae  escape  from  the  disaster  was  compara- 
tively easy.  Pompei,  with  its  20,000  inhabitants, 
lying  midway  between  Stabiae  and  Vesuvius, 
must  have  been  buried  more  rapidly,  but  many 
made  good  their  escape,  and  it  has  been  estimated 
that  one-tenth  of  the  inhabitants  survived.  Com- 
paratively few  skeletons  are  found  in  the  city  itself, 
but  many  must  be  buried  in  the  countryside. 
Many  people  wished  to  take  their  money  with 
them,  while  others  hid  themselves  in  cellars  :  and 
the  skeletons  of  a  family  of  eleven  were   found 


in  the  upper 
bian  Road,* 
escape  the 
sifted  into 
they  were 
roof. 


A  Lantern  (Naples  Museum) 


Storey  of  a  house  on  the  Sta- 

where    they  had  climbed  to 

shower    of    hot    ashes    that 

the  ground  floor  :  and  where 

all   killed   by   poisonous   gases   or  by  the  fall  of  the 
In   1787    eight   skeletons  were   found  beneath  a 
fallen   wall,    one   holding   a   lantern    in    its 
hand.t 

A  woman  was  found  who  had  fallen  on 
the  threshold  of  a  tablinum  in  the  act  of 
carrying  off  some  jewellery  in  an  inlaid  box. 
She  wore  a  collar  of  amulets  round  her  neck, 
and  bone  pins,  and  had  phials  of  perfume 

A  I^.p  (Naples  Museum)  ^^^^    ^^^ 

In  the  House  of  the  Faun  a  skeleton  of  a  woman  was  found  beside  a 
lamp,  but  the  head  is  gone.     Almost  all  the  dead  had  wrapped  their  heads 
•  In  the  excavations  of  1869.  f  GiomaU  dei  Scari. 


I 


i6 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS    LIFE    AND   ART 


DESTRUCTION    OF   POMPEI    AND   THE    EXCAVATIONS 


17 


V 


i 


{ 


in  cloaks,  while  others  had  bound  cushions  on  their  heads  to  protect  them 
from  the  shower  of  stones. 

Several  have  been  discovered  with  food  near  them,  like  the  man  who 


A  Man  (Museum  of  Pompei) 

was  found  with  a  plate  beside  him,  on  which  were  the  bones  of  some  small 
animal. 

In  the  cellars  of  the  Ft//a  of  Diomedes  eighteen  bodies  of  women  and 
children  were  discovered,  with  all  sorts  of  provisions  ready  to  hand.  They 
had  been  suffocated  by  the  ashes :  all  lay  with  their  heads  covered  as  if 
asleep.      A   man — the   probable    owner    of    the   villa — key   in   hand,    lay 


Man  with  Sandals  (Maseum  of  Pompei) 

Stretched  on  the  ground  near  the  gate  leading  from  the  garden,  with  his 
slaves,  who  had  followed  with  money  and  valuables. 

Some  of  these  tragic  figures  are  of  extraordinary  interest.  Two 
women,  perhaps  mother  and  daughter,  were  found  lying  on  the  ashes, 
not  far  from  a  man  wearing  drawers,  and  shoes  studded  with  heavy  nails. 
Another  young  woman,  a  graceful  creature  with  a  delicate  neck,  a  slender 


figure  and  well-shaped  legs,  her  hair  plaited  high  on  her  head,  lay  face 
downwards,  leaning  on  one  arm. 


A  Woipan  (Museum  of  Pompei) 


This  cast  of  her,  and  many  others,  we  owe  to  Fiorelli,  the  great  Italian 


antiquarian,  who  began  the 
finite  scientific  principles,  and 
adopted  by_llTose  who  came 
for  some  years  in  the  civil 
was  to  pour  plaster  into  the 
wet  ashes,  which  on  drying 
the  bodies,  retaining  their 
had  fallen  into  dust.  This 
we  are  indebted  to  it  for  the 
Another  charming  female 
a  ring  on  her  hand,  pendants 

1  1    •      •!  1       1   r      ..       OL         (Naples  Museum) 

her  damtuy  arched  feet.    She 


Key  of  Diomedes 


excavations  at  Pompei  on  de- 
whose  system  has  been 
after  him.  His  bust  has  stood 
Forum  at  Pompei.  His  plan 
natural  moulds  made  by  the 
had  formed  a  solid  crust  round 
imprint  after  they  themselves 
process  was  carried  out,  and 
casts  reproduced  here, 
figure  is  that  of  a  woman  with 
in  her  ears,  and  slippers  on 
was  found  lying  on  her  back. 


with  her  garments  rolled  round  her  hips,  showing  her  rounded  thighs  and 


/^•> 


A  Man  (Museum  of  Pompei) 


delicately  modelled  knees  and  ankles.  By  her  side  were  only  an  amber 
Cupid  and  a  mirror.  Her  beauty  was  doubtless  the  greatest  of  her 
possessions. 


i8 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND    ART 


u 


I 


The  dog  reproduced  here  was  fastened  by  a  chain   to  his  collar,  so 

that  he  could  not  escape.     He  was  the  watch-dog  of  the  House  of  Orpheus, 

Skeletons  of  prisoners  were  taken  from  the  prison  near  the  Forum, 

with  their  leg-bones  in  iron  shackles.  It 
has  been  stated  by  many  authorities  that 
only  one  soldier  has  been  found.  He  was 
discovered  near  the  so-called  Gate  of  Her- 
culaneum,  the  boundary  of  the  Pagus 
Augustus  Felix,  which  has  not  yet  been 
excavated.  The  skull  and  helmet  of  this 
The  Dogof  Pompei  rNFuseum  of  Pompeit     soldier   have    been    preserved.      They    are 

among  the  few  martial  relics  that  have  been  discovered,  other  than  the 

weapons  of  gladiators,  of  whom  there  were  large  numbers  at  Pompei. 
In  spite  of  the  tragedy  of  these  "old  unhappy 

far-off  things,"  the  memory  of  these  death-agonies, 

and  of  this  cutting  off  of  young  life,  the  remoteness 

of  the  catastrophe  and  the  interest  of  the  disinterred 

city  enable  the  mind  to  fall  wholly  under  the  spell 

of  history,  and  we  carry  inhumanity  so  far  as  to  feel 

no  regret   for  a  disaster  which  has  preserved    this 

amazing     record    of    Graeco- Roman     antiquity,    a 

chronicle  more  vivid  than  that  of  any  pen.     With- 
out   Vesuvius,    what    would    have    been    the    fate 

of   these    streets,    these   houses   and   temples,    this 

lifelike  painting  and  delicate  sculpture  .>    Wars  and 

the    course    of    civilisation  would    have    inevitably      a  Mirror. N«pi,«Mu,e«m) 

destroyed  the  treasure  that  remains  for  our  delight,  leaving  but  a  vague 

memory  to  posterity. 

When  the  storm  from  the  mountain   had  spent  itself,   the  survivors 

came  back  to  the  place  where  their  homes  had  stood,  the  cradle  of  their 

childhood.     They  had  no  longer  a  city ;  all  had  disappeared,  and  the  sea 


1^ 


SBESi 


DESTRUCTION   OF   POMPEI   AND   THE   EXCAVATIONS 


t9 


had  ebbed  five  furlongs,*  owing  to  the  upheaval  of  the  soil.  The  upper 
storeys  of  some  houses  that  were  still  standing  above  the  drift  of  ashes 
must  have  served  to  guide  the  Pompeians  in  their  search,  for  it  is  certain 
that  they  returned  to  their  old  homes,  to  take  away  the  valuables  they  had 
left  The  very  paintings  were  cut  from  the  walls,  and  in  modern 
excavations  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  a  decorative 
panel  with  its  principal  motive  gone ;  the  wall  has 
crumbled  in  the  blank  space,  leaving  only  some 
clamps  of  rusted  iron  intact.  The  Pompeians  must 
have  entered  their  houses,  or  the  houses  of  their 
neighbours,  by  the  upper  storeys,  which  were  on  a 
level  with  the  ground,  owing  to  the  raising  of  the 
soil.  Breaches  were  made  in  the  walls  to  give  access 
from  one  room  to  another,  for  the  doors,  passages, 
and  porticoes  were  blocked  by  pumice  stones.  Those 
rooms  which  were  only  partially  buried  were,  con- 
sequently, stripped  of  their  valuables ;  statues  were 
removed,  marble  facings  were  cut  away,  furniture  and  pavements  dis- 
appeared. It  is  also  supposed  that  Alexander  Severus  had  a  large  quantity 
of  marbles,  columns,  and  statues  of  very  fine  workmanship  dug  out  of 
the  city  at  a  later  date.  In  the  course  of  our  modern  excavations, 
skeletons  have  been  found  standing  nearly  upright,  and  one  of  them, 
who  had  a  hatchet  in  his  hand,  must  have  died  in  the  act  of  breaking 
a  hole  in  the  wall.  It  is  supposed  that  the  mephitic  vapours  suffocated 
them,  and  that  they  were  buried  by  falling  masonry. t  In  the  entrance  to 
the  house  of  Popidius  Priscus,  which  had  been  searched  in  ancient  times, 

•  Ruggiero,  one  of  the  directors  of  the  excavations,  sunk  wells  in  the  district  in  1879,  in  the 
process  of  rectifying  the  course  of  the  Sarnus,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  this  old  shore  was 
about  five  furlongs  from  Pompei  (one  mile  now),  and  that  the  sea  had  made  an  inlet  in  the  coast 
near  Pompei,  where  the  original  mouth  of  the  Sarnus  was.  (See  Pompei  e  la  Rcgione  sotterrata 
dal  Vesuvio,  Naples,  1879.) 

t  Even  in  our  own  time  poisonous  gases  rise  from  cellars  and  sewers  that  have  been 
blocked  up. 


Skull  and  Helmet  of  a  Soldier 
(Naples  Museum) 


^i^Wjt:UL  •■^i'l  M  '-umm 


20 


POMPEI:    THE    CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND    ART 


DESTRUCTION    OF   POMPEI    AND   THE    EXCAVATIONS 


2t 


h 


the  following  inscription*  is  scratched  with  a  pointed  instrument :  AOYMMOC 
IlEPTOYCA,  which  means  "a  house  emptied  or  searched." 

Not  long  after  the  disaster  there  were  projects  for  rebuilding  the  town. 
Suetonius  writes  that  "  the  reign  of  Titus  was  marked  by  great  and  unfore- 
seen calamities,  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  Campania,  and  at  Rome  a 
fire  that  lasted  three  days  and  nights,  and  a  plague  that  laid  waste  the 
town.  The  Emperor  acted  with  royal  energy,  and  showed  a  father's  care 
for  his  people  in  their  misfortunes,  encouraging  them  by  his  edicts  and 
helping  them  with  his  bounties.  Consulars  were  chosen  by  lot,  and 
charged  to  repair  the  destruction  of  Campania  ;  and  the  property  of  those 
who  had  perished  without  heirs,  in  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  was  employed 
in  rebuilding  the  ruined  cities." 

Many  writers  have  gone  so  far  as  to  say  that  Pompei  was  excavated 
and  re-inhabited  after  the  eruption.  But  this  is  a  purely  imaginary 
hypothesis,  and  no  coins  later  than  the  reign  of  Titus,  or  the  year  79, 
have  been  found  hitherto.  A  new  city,  however,  must  have  been  built  at 
the  foot  of  Vesuvius,  and  Fiorelli  describes  its  situation  in  his  Giomaie  dei 
Scavi.  It  must  have  stood  where  Bosco  Reale  and  Bosco  tre  Case  now 
stand,  on  a  site  where  many  discoveries  were  made  in  the  excavations 
of  about  the  year  i86i.t  Pompei  was  used  as  a  quarry,  and  its  stones 
were  taken  to  build  the  new  city,  which  was  still  in  existence  in  471, 
when  a  fresh  eruption  finally  destroyed  it.J 

The  city  of  Pompei  was,  in  fact,  rebuilt  several  times.  There  was 
the  original  city  founded  in  the  sixth  century  by  the  Oscans,  and  completed 
by  the  Samnites  and  the  Greeks ;  §  the  second  city,  partially  restored  by 
the  Romans,  mainly  after  the  earthquake  of  the  year  63  ;  and  a  third 
city,  the  position  of  which  was  slightly  changed.  It  was  probably  built 
rather  farther   to   the  north.     The  persistence  of  people  in  returning  to 

•  The  characters  of  this  inscription  appear  to  be  those  of  the  third  century.     (Beultf.) 
t  See  Beul6. 

\  A  map  made  at  Constantinople  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  gives  Pompei. 
§  Fiorelli,  Descrizione  di  Pompei.     Napoli,  1875. 


their  former  abode,  in  spite  of  its  dangers,  is  not  surprising,  for  careless- 
ness of  life  and  forgetfulness  of  the  past,  a  pleasant  climate  and  love  of 
a  country,  have  always  proved  more  persuasive  than  reason.  It  is  the 
same  to-day,  and  Vesuvius  is  still  the  centre  of  populous  towns  and  new 
villas.  Torre  del  Greco  has  been  at  the  mercy  of  every  eruption,  and  was 
eleven  times  destroyed  ;  yet  people  live  there,  and  seem  to  find  a  pleasure 

in  their  life. 

Pompei  was  finally  abandoned  by  the  ancients  as  not  worth  dis- 
interring, and  lay  for  many  centuries  buried,  while  grass,  corn,  vines,  pines 
and  orange-trees  clothed  this  land  of  fire  with  verdure,  and  added  their 
brilliant  chords  of  colour  to  the  sunlit  harmony  of  the  landscape.  The  aloe 
and  the  cactus  took  firm  hold  of  the  new  soil,  and  life  unfolded  itself  at 
every  turn.  The  careless  shepherds  brought  their  flocks  to  crop  the 
fresh  herbage  there ;  now  the  herdsman's  song  rises  from  the  pastures, 
and  in  the  evening,  one  seems  to  hear  the  plaintive  murmur  of  the 
manes  of  Pompei. 


I 


^f%. 


Ld.i 


I  iiiiit-  I    rm 


immr  •»  '~::^. 


DESTRUCTION    OF   POMPEI    AND   THE    EXCAVATIONS 


«3 


I' 
Ij 


THE  "CIVITA  "-RECENT  EXCAVATIONS  AND  THOSE  NOW 

IN  PROGRESS 

THE  very  name  of  Pompei  was  more  or  less  forgotten  in  time,  and 
rarely    mentioned    save    by    scholars ;    the    country   people    alone 
remembered  it,  and  called  the  old  site  of  the   city  the   Ctzn/d.     It 
would  be   difficult   to   say   how   much    remained   of  the   buildings   which 
emerged  from  the  bed  of  ashes.     The  destruction  must  have  been  far  less 
complete  than  one  would  have  imagined,  for  the  lapilli  that  filled  the  town 
naturally  strengthened  the  walls  and  consolidated   their  foundations,   and 
the  highest  points  of  several  buildings  must  have  stood  for  a  long  time 
above  the  new  soil ;  indeed,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
Sannazar  says  that  it  was  possible  to  see  the  towers,  houses,  and  temples 
standing   almost    intact.     This   is,    perhaps,    an    exaggeration ;  but,    after 
making  all  due  allowance  for  the  writer's  imagination,  it  is  certain  that  the 
highest  points  of  the  theatres,  arches,  towers,  and  amphitheatre  must  have 
stood  several  courses  above  the  level  of  the  soil.     The  general  public  was 
long  so  indifferent  to  archaeology,  that  these  ruins  attracted  no  notice  for 
centuries,  even  when  the  architect  Fontana  dug  an  aqueduct  in   1592  to 
carry  the  water  of   the  Sarnus  to   Torre   Annunziata,  and   in   so   doing 
crossed  the  city  of  Pompei  at  its  widest  part,  from  the  amphitheatre  to  the 
temple  of  Apollo.      He  demolished  and  pierced  several  walls,  and   even 
found  an  inscription  containing   the   words  Fenus  Pompeiana,  but  all  the 
cuttings  were  filled  up,   and  none   cared   to   pursue  an   apparently    futile 


investigation.  After  the  lapse  of  another  century,  Giuseppe  Macrini 
examined  the  Civita  in  1693,  but  though  he  made  some  discoveries,  he 
left  things  very  much  as  he  had  found  them. 

In  1738,  King  Charles  III.,  encouraged  by  the  excavations  that  had 
been  begun  at  Herculaneum  in  17 11,  determined  to  continue  the  interrupted 
work  at  Resina,  and  also  to  excavate  the  Civita  itself  A  journal, 
printed  in  Spanish,  and  called  the  Cava  de  la  Civita,  reported  the  progress 
of  the  works,  but  it  was  generally  supposed  that  the  city  that  was  being 
excavated  was  Stabiae.     The  object  of  the  works  was  not  to  remove  the 


Bronze  Seals  (Naples  Museum) 

ashes,  but  to  find  works  of  art  for  the  palaces  and  antiquarian  collections 
of  the  great  nobles  of  the  day.  Hence  the  confusion  and  lack  of  method 
in  the  excavations  can  easily  be  imagined.  Houses  were  looted  and 
buried  again,  after  they  had  been  much  damaged  in  the  process,  and 
walls  were  broken  down  to  obtain  curious  pictures,  or  were  ruined  by 
the  rough  handling  of  the  workmen,  who  at  that  time  were  convicts. 

In  1748,  some  peasants  who  were  digging  a  ditch  struck  some  hard 
substance  with  their  spades,  and  discovered  articles  of  all  kinds,  and  some 
fine  statues,  a  tripod,  and  a  Priapus  in  bronze.  Again,  about  the  year  1755, 
the  House  of  Julia  Felix  *  was  discovered,  despoiled  of  its  many  art 
treasures,  and  buried  again.  Finally,  in  1763,  an  inscription  was  found 
on  a  travertine  pedestal,  to  the  effect  that  T.  S.  Climens  had  restored 
to  the   "  Municipium  of  the  Pompeians  "  the  lands  encroached  upon  by 

*  Generally  speaking,  the  names  given  tc  the  houses  discovered  are  taken  from  the  seals  or 
from  the  works  of  art  found  there,  or  they  are  named  after  visitors  to  Pompei.  The  House  of 
Julia  Felix  is  not  marked  in  our  map  of  Pompei.  It  has  been  covered  up  again,  and  is  situated 
not  far  from  the  amphitheatre. 


m 


i 


«4 


POMPEI:    THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 


DESTRUCTION    OF   POMPEI    AND    THE    EXCAVATIONS 


25 


private    persons.      This    inscription,    found    so    close    to   others   already 
discovered,  confirmed  the  impression  that  the  buried  city  was  Pompei. 

In  1764  an  Italian  paper  appeared  with  an  account  of  the  new 
discoveries.  Everything  went  on  as  usual,  until  the  simple  idea  of  in- 
troducing some  order  into  the  excavations  began  to  gain  ground,  when 
it  was  at  last  understood  that  an  entire  city  lay  buried.  General 
Championnet,  who  occupied  Naples  in  1799,  took  a  great  interest  in 
Pompei,  and  two  houses  are  named  after  him. 

In  18 1 2  and  1813,  Queen  Caroline  continued  the  excavations,  and 
visited  the  works  in  person.  It  was  about  this  time  that  the  French 
architect  Mazois,  who  was  much  interested  in  Pompei,  did  his  best  to 
bring  the  city  into  prominence  by  his  work.  He  noted,  drew,  and 
measured  all  that  had  been  discovered  there,  and  in  1822  he  published  in 
France,  under  royal  patronage,  a  monumental  book,  full  of  plates,  which 
is  still  a  standard  work.  But  though  the  works  were  better  managed,  they 
were  not  carried  on  altogether  methodically  :  for  example,  if  a  house  seemed 
to  promise  no  new  discoveries,  it  was  left,  and  another  was  taken  at  hazard 
and  investigated.  It  was  not  until  i860  that  the  ashes  and  rubbish  were 
entirely  cleared  away  from  the  houses  that  had  been  already  searched  and 
abandoned  ;  Fiorelli,  the  director  of  the  works,  spent  several  years  on 
this  task.  He  threw  open  Pompei  to  visitors,  who  were  allowed  to  admire 
the  views  of  the  city  and  to  walk  through  the  streets  as  freely  as  did  the 
original  citizens  of  Pompei.  The  old  beams  were  replaced  by  new  ones, 
and  the  grass  regulariy  weeded  from  the  cracks  of  the  paving-stones  by  a 
gang  of  workmen,  to  prevent  the  streets  from  being  overrun  with  moss  and 
weeds.  A  turnstile,  where  a  charge  is  made  for  entrance,  is  placed  at  the 
entrance  of  the  ruins,  and  the  receipts  partially  defray  the  cost  of  the 
excavations,  which  will  probably  last  for  many  years,  for  at  least  one-third 
of  the  city  is  still  buried. 

Although  the  excavations   now   in   progress   have    resulted   in   many 
discoveries- for   example,    that    of    the    House  of   the    Vettii,    and    the 


I 


supposed  Temple  of  Venus — they  can  add  very  little  to  what  we  know 
already.  But  there  is  always  the  interest  of  the  works  themselves,  the 
curious  pleasure  of  seeing  the  relics  of  ancient  life  disengaged  from  the 
earth,  of  handling  their  beautiful  and  delicate  forms,  of  studying  at  first 
hand  the  refinement  of  a  civilisation  it  is  only  possible  to  realise  here,  in 
its  actual  setting. 

During  the  excavations  in  the  House  of  the  Vettii,  when  the  ashes  were 
being  removed  from  the  atrium^  a  strong-box,  very  much  damaged, 
was  found  near  the  prothyrum.  The  box  itself,  which  was  principally  made 
of  wood,  fell  into  dust,  and  the  ironwork  and  the  copper  ornaments  lay  in 
a  heap  with  the  small  pumice-stones  that  had  amalgamated  with  the  metals, 
producing  the  most  charming  shades  of  green  and  red.  When,  however, 
the  spot  was  examined,  in  the  hope  of  discovering  valuables,  it  was 
discovered  that  the  coffer  was  empty.  The  Pompeians  had  taken  every, 
thing  away,  and  not  a  sestertius  was  left.  A  few  years  ago,  everything 
of  value  and  all  the  most  interesting  paintings  were  taken  from  Pompei 
to  the  Naples  Museum.  This,  though  it  has  destroyed  some  of  the  interest 
of  the  houses,  has  ensured  the  preservation  of  a  great  deal  of  the  decorative 
art  of  the  city.  We  can  admire  it  at  Naples,  but  how  captivating  it 
would  have  been  to  see  it  in  its  proper  setting,  just  as  the  people  of 
Pompei  had  left  it !  Now,  however,  houses  with  decorations  are  roofed 
over  to  protect  them  from  sun  and  rain,  and  some  of  the  paintings  are 
covered  with  glass.  Marble  furniture  and  bronze  statuettes  are  left 
where  they  were  found,  and  on  entering  some  of  these  houses  the 
impression  of  reality  is  so  strong  that  one  instinctively  looks  round  for 
the  master  of  the  house,   Pansa  or  Vettius,  to  apologise  for  appearing 

unannounced. 

Pompei  is  a  city  that  gains  in  interest  as  we  know  it  better.  The 
houses,  the  cool  alleys,  and  the  many  byways  that  are  almost  unknown, 
and  that  the  ordinary  traveller  never  sees,  grow  familiar.  To  many 
people  a  visit  to    Pompei  is  but  a  change  of  scene;   they  only   realise 


/i 


TBCP'SS^ 


I 


if 


\i\ 


7 


a«  POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 

the  superficial  aspect  of  the  city  ;  the  intimate  charm  of  Pompei  remains 
unknown  to  them. 

The  city  contains  no  great  and  almost  royal  palaces  like  those  in 
Rome,  but  in  this  lies  its  peculiar  charm.  Here  you  see  the  normal  and 
natural  life  of  the  ancient  world,  and  identify  yourself  with  the  men  of 
Pompei  as  you  see  them  in  their  busts  and  portraits ;  you  feel  the  grace 
and  coquetry  of  the  women  painted  on  the  walls ;  you  understand  and 
pardon  the  faults  of  their  age.  and  acquire  a  taste  for  their  graceful  and 
frivolous  art.  You  become  sufficiently  pagan  to  sympathise  with  their 
seductive  civilisation  ;  you  look  into  the  soul  of  the  city  and  .see  that  in 
the  ancient  world  art  made  life,  and  that  the  love  of  beauty  was  almost 
a  religion;  you  realise  that  the  ''genre  pompier"  was  an  invention  of 
the  seventeenth  century. 


VI 


THE  PLAN  OF  AN  ANCIENT  CITY— THE  CITY  GATES— THE  WALLS 
AND  TOWERS— AN  EXCURSION  ROUND  POMPEI 

BEFORE  making  a  closer  study  of  Pompei,  it  is  perhaps  necessary  to 
give  some  account  of  the  plan  of  the  city.*  M.  Boissier,  to  whose 
learned  work  we  shall  often  have  to  refer,  tells  us  that  the  original 
inhabitants  of  the  country,  before  founding  a  town,  had  the  city  wall  first 
marked  out,  and  then  drew  two  straight  lines  between  its  extreme  points : 
the  first,  called  the  Cardo,  running  from  north  to  south ;  and  the  other, 
called  the  Decunianus,  running  from  east  to  west.  These  were  the  two 
main  streets,  from  which  the  other  side-streets  branched  out.  Each  "island  " 
(insu/a)  surrounded  by  streets  was  divided  at  will  into  various  houses. 

The  two  drawings  here  reproduced  give  a  portion  of  the  raised 
plan  of  Pompei  in  the  museum  at  Naples,  and  show  the  arrangement 
of  the  t»  o  theatres,  and  the  appearance  of  several  insula  near  the 
Street  of  Mercury.  The  chief  divisions  marked  out  by  the  first  inhabitants 
of  Pompei  are  still  in  existence,  for  the  main  lines  of  the  city  have  not 
changed.  When  the  population  increased,  parts  of  the  gardens  surrounding 
the  houses,  forming  what  was  called  the  haredium,  cultivated  by  the 
household,  were  absorbed. 

Of  the  nine  districts  of  Pompei,  three  have  been  completely  excavated 
and  three  partially  so ;  the  rest  are  as  yet  untouched. t     In  order  to  form 

*  Boissier,  Promenades  arch/ologiques, 

f  The  city  is  an  irregular  oval  in  shape,  extending  from  east  to  west,  and  its  fortifications 
extend  for  2843  yards  round  the  city. 


mummmamm 


ft 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


J* 


some  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  city  and  its  general  appearance,  we  will 
examine  Pompei  from  the  outside,  and  so  get  a  better  view  of  the  walls, 


View  of  the  Theatres  and  the  neighbouring  Buildings  (from  the  raised  map  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

towers  and  gates,  and  some  of  the  finest  sites  of  the  town.     There  were  at 

least  eight  gates  in  the  walls, 
corresponding  to  as  many 
main  roads,  leading  generally 
to  small  towns  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, and  called  after 
their  names.  They  were  :  the 
Gate  of  the  Seashore  {Porta 
Afartna),  and  the  Gates  of 
Stabiae,  Nuceria,  Sarnus,  Nola» 
Capua,  Vesuvius,  and  Hercu- 
laneum.   Only  the  Gate  of  the 

Seashore  and  the  Gates  of  Nola  and  Herculaneum  are  entirely  excavated. 
The  Gate  of  the  Seashore,  now  approached  by  a  path  cut  through 

the  ashes,  and  shaded  by  acacias,  takes  its  name  from  the  neighbouring  sea, 


The  Street  of  Mercury  and  some  InsiiK-e  (from  the  raised 
map  in  the  Naples  Museum) 


io 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


DESTRUCTION   OF   POMPEI   AND   THE    EXCAVATIONS 


3» 


il 


II  i 


and  was  probably  placed  under  the  regis  of  Minerva,  whose  statue  in  terra- 
cotta once  stood  in  a  niche  by  the  entrance,  where  a  golden  votive  lamp 
used  to  bum.  This  gate  has  only  one  entrance,  a  long  archway,  the  floor 
of  which  is  partly  paved  and  rises  to  a  considerable  height  above  the  soil, 

.1 


^. 


The  Gate  of  the  Seashore  ( /'<w/a  Afarina). 


SO  that  carriages  could  not  enter  it.  The  gate  was  closed  by  wooden 
folding-doors  and  by  an  iron  grating.  Within  the  porch  there  opened  out 
large  vaulted  rooms  which  must  have  once  served  as  warehouses.  An  old 
archway,  paved  with  polygonal  stones,  that  formerly  led  to  these  store- 
houses, has  been  hidden  again  under  heaps  of  scoriae  from  the  excavations 
of  1817.*    The  city  walls  at  this  point  follow  the  line  of  the  important  road, 

*  Fiorelli. 


which  can  be  still  distinctly  seen  in  places,  and  the  houses  have  encroached 
on  the  old  fortifications,  which  had  become  unnecessary  under  the  Roman 
rule.  All  the  south  slope,  on  which  part  of  the  city  lies,  was  covered  by 
picturesque  buildings  situated  on  many  terraces,  and  rising  in  stages  like  an 
amphitheatre.     The  view  from  many  of  these  houses   over   the   sea  and 


The  Gate  of  Stabiae*  (from  the  inside) 

country  is  exceedingly  beautiful.  From  the  present  road  leading  to 
Salerno  the  city  presents  a  curious  appearance,  and  its  outline  against  the 
sky  reminds  one  of  a  mediaeval  stronghold. 

A  little  farther  on  the  view  opens  out,  and  the  Triangular  Forum  (the 
A^ora  of  the  Greek  period,  and  the  Acropolis  of  Pompei)  forms  its  most  beau- 
tiful natural  terrace.  A  semicircular  bench  stands  by  the  side  of  the  wall,  and 
behind  it  there  is  a  temple,  said  to  be  the  Temple  of  Hercules,  of  which  only 
five  steps  and  some  few  capitals  remain.     Next,  part  of  the  great  theatre 

*  See  also  the  coloured  plate,  No.  II.  (The  Gate  of  Stabiae,  from  the  outside). 


^^^^^^^ 


mMttm 


Ui 


I 


k 


POMPEI:   THE  CITY,   ITS   LIFE    AND   ART 

comes  in  sight,  and  some  columns  of  the  old  portico  rise  lightly  into 
the  air.  The  roots  of  the  aloes  and  cacti  have  strengthened  the  soil  of 
ashes,  which  is  now  green  with  springing  grass,  that  turns  golden  in  the 
warm  light  of  the  setting  sun  at  evening.     In  the  background  he  the  blue 


The  Exedra  of  the  Gate  of  Subias 

slopes  of  Vesuvius,  where  the  smoke  is  always   rising,  twisting,  moving 
upwards  in  a  thin  column,  and  melting  into  the  clouds. 

A  little  farther  on  the  Gate  of  Stabis  is  reached.  Under  the  porch 
there  is  a  cippus  of  Samnite  work,  with  an  inscription  giving  the  names  of 
the  ^diles  who  were  responsible  for  the  paving  of  the  Stabian  Way.  a  road 
that  was  much  in  use.  judging  by  the  well-worn  flags  beneath  the  archway. 
Drivers  of  cars  (asarit)  halted  here  and  watered  their  mules  at  the  rumed 
fountain  against  the  wall.     On  the  left,  to  one  side,  a  flight  of  steps  leads  to 


■^iS^ 


'/j:-'''':*-'^*^ 


1 


i 


4iiliiiiiHiMMtaMaMki^. 


«*•■>■ 


ill 


il 


i 

I 

I 

i 


PL.   II 


I 


'"W^ 


,j^f 


gprti.,.- 


V  ■-■. 


'\      M i       •  V    \.j 


THE    STABIAN   GATE 


'  •»    .      ■-•     :  1, 


i 


THE     STREET    OF    STABIES 


mm%m.'ym^aK%^.^SR,^Li^ 


TT— ai 


DESTRUCTION   OF   POMPEI   AND   THE   EXCAVATIONS 


33 


^ 


i, 


tHP 


the  ramparts,  which  command  a  wide  view  over  the  city  and  Vesuvius. 
The  numerous  houses  on  either  side  of  the  street,  built  on  exactly  the  same 
plan,  were  not  rich  men's  houses.  In  one  of  these,  a  house  rented  by  a 
certain  Marcus  Suras,  a  native  of  Caracenum,  and  a  rower  in  the  fleet  at 
Misenum  which 
Pliny  commanded, 
there  was  found  a 
copy  of  an  imperial 
decree,  naturalis- 
ing him  and  his 
fellows  as  Roman 
citizens  after 
twenty -six     years 

of  military  service.  Tombs  on  the  Road  to  Nuceria 

Two  fine  seats,  or  exedrae,  sheltering  the  tombs  of  Tullius  and  Minius, 
are  pleasantly  situated  near  the  gate,  outside  the  city,  in  full  view  of  the 
valley  of  the  Sarnus.  There  men  sat  and  passed  the  time  in  talk,  waiting 
for  friends  who  were  late  in  coming,  as  the  heavy-laden  carts  passed  by 
them,  bringing  wealth  and  luxury  into  the  city,  while  in  the  distance,  in 
the  silence  of  the  country,  could  be  heard  the  regular  beat  of  the  hoofs 
of  driven  mules  and  the  tinkling  of  their  bells.  The  burying-places  lie 
farther  on,  by  the  roadside  ;  and  in  the  country  towards  Stabiae,  on  a  level 
with  the  old  soil,  terra-cotta  urns  full  of  calcined  bones,  glass  avipuHce, 
and  coins  are  often  found. 

Farther  on  we  can  see  the  amphitheatre  situated  on  lower  ground. 
This  was  the  first  building  discovered  ;  and  hard  by  is  the  Gate  of  Nuceria, 
which  has  not  yet  been  excavated,  though  beyond  the  gate  the  ground  has 
been  examined  by  Signor  Pacifico,  the  present  owner  of  this  part  of  the 
old  road,  who  found  there  stucco  tombs,  ornamented  with  rough  hewn 
stone  statues  of  an  extremely  archaic  character.  The  places  of  burial 
here  are  not  at  all  like  those  more  famous  ones  in  the  Way  of  Tombs  ; 

E 


^ 


34 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE    AND    ART 


these  have  quite  an   Egyptian   character  :   one   of  them   is   erected  to  a 
member  of  the  Mancius  family,  with  the  inscription 


P-MANCIPLDIOGENI 

EXTESTAMENTO   ARBRITRATV 

MANCIAEPLDORINIS 


If  we  turn  from  the  country  towards  the  city  again,  we  can  see  that  a 
great  deal  of  the  area  has  not  yet  been  excavated,  and  that  the  level  of  the 


The  Gate  of  NoU.  or  of  I  sis  (from  the  inside » 

soil  has  been  further  raised  by  heaps  of  old  scoria.  At  this  point  we  get 
the  finest  panorama  of  the  country  round.  To  the  left  lies  the  far-off  sea, 
and  we  can  catch  glimpses  at  various  points  of  the  beautiful  Isle  of  Capri. 
In  the  centre  lies  the  irregular  mass  of  Pompei,  and  on  the  right  the  sombre 
mountain  of  Vesuvius*  stands  like  an  enemy  over  against  the  city.  The 
fairest  landscape  rejoices  the  eye  that  wanders  over  the  luminous  expanse. 
Thin-stemmed  pines  raise  their  graceful  shafts,  crowned  with  dark-green 
foliage,  and  in  spring  the  dull  russet  boughs  of  the  fruit-trees  are  studded 
over  with  pink  and  white  stars.     The  cool  green  fields  of  springing  corn 

*  In  the  drawings  in  this  book  in  which  Vesuvius  occurs,  the  different  views  of  the  smoke 
are  drawn  from  nature;  indeed,  all  the  illustrations  are  exact  reproductions  of  actual  scenes, 
and  not  imaginary  views  of  them.  , 


DESTRUCTION   OF   POMPEI   AND   THE   EXCAVATIONS 


35 


and  flowering  lentils  give  repose  to  the  eye,  and  the  vivid  white  of  the  few 
modern  houses  adds  its  gay  note  to  the  shifting  harmony  of  the  mountain- 
side, that  changes  from  blue  to  rose  and  from  violet  to  gold  with  the 
changing  sun.  It  is  a  land  where  the  scent  of  the  sea  blends  with  the 
breath  of  the  fields  amidst  scenes  so 
enchanting  that  the  soul  pays  an  equal 
tribute  to  art  and  to  nature.  What 
landscape  could  more  fitly  inspire  another 
Theocritus ! 

In  the  evening  the  same  land  and 
sea  are  transformed.     The  deep  purple 

sky    dyes     the    soft    slopes    of   the    mOUn-    '^^'^  inscription,  and  Head  of  Isis  (after  De  Clarac) 

tains  of  Sorrento  with  warm  mists  ranging  from  violet  to  velvety  gold, 
and  the  Isle  of  Capri,  set  in  a  ring  of  fire,  seems  to  pass  away  in 
apotheosis.  The  sea,  pale  red  or  metallic  blue,  shows  dark  against  the 
level  line  of  the  horizon,  where  the  white  sails  of  boats,  like  open-winged 
birds,  stoop  as  if  to  caress  the  water.  Silence  falls  over  all  ;  the  long 
shadows  disappear,  and  a  dim  shade  creeps  up  over  the  city,  indistinguish- 
able in  the  faded  purple  of  the  twilight. 

Let  us  return  to  the  east,  to  the  Gate  of  Nola  or  of  Isis,  near  the 
amphitheatre.  This,  too,  is  vaulted,  and  the  keystone  is  ornamented  with  a 
rude  carving  supposed  to  represent  the  head  of  the  Egyptian  goddess  Isis. 
Her  long  hair  falls  on  her  shoulders,  and  she  seems  to  be  wearing  a 
crown.      On  one  side  is  a  marble  tablet  with  the  0>can  inscription  here 

reproduced, 

C-  POPIDIVSC 

ME-  TVC- AAMANA   PH    PHED 

ISIDY  •  PRVPHATTED 

which  De  Clarac  translates  as  follows :  Caius  Popidius  Caii  Jilius  medix- 
tucticus  restituit  et  Isidi  consecravit. 

The  post  of   medixtucticus  was  the  first  municipal  office  among   the 


^ 


if 


} 


36  .  POMPEI:   THE   CirV,    US   LIFE   AND   ART 

Oscans,  and  the  family  of  Popidius.  whose  name  occurs  several  times  in 
inscriptions,  seems  to  have  practised  a  devout  cult  of  Isis.  Some  writers  are 
of  opinion  that  the  inscription  was  placed  on  this  part  of  the  gate  when  it 
was  rebuilt  in  the  Roman  period  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  walls  close  by 
are  extremely  old,  and  are  certainly  Oscan  ;  many  curious  marks  are  cut  in 
the  stone,*  and  some  of  these  signs  resemble  certain  characters  of  the  old 
Greek  alphabet.  All  the  specimens  reproduced  here  are  cut  in  tufa,  or  in 
hard  lava,  materials  which  were  used  for  the  older  buildings,  for  curbstones, 
and  for  paving-stones.     The  stones  of  the  lower  courses  are  trapezoid  in 


_<   l^   tf  (^  ^^ 


Ai  M 


t^    ^     ^      + 


H/K 


."V  S.   ^ 


-s,  ^ 


A- 


Oscan  Lapidary  Marks 


form,  while  the  upper   portion  of  the  walls   is   ashlar,  the  joints  of  one 
course  resting  on  the  centres  of  the  stones  below. 

Farther  on,  in  the  direction  of  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum,  the  fortifica- 
tions t  are  in  a  good  state  of  preservation,  and  bristle  with  square  towers, 
built  by  the  Romans,  of  small,  rough-hewn  stones.  From  this  point  we  can 
form  a  very  clear  notion  of  the  arrangement  of  the  ramparts,  which  consisted 
of  a  terraced  platform,  supported  on  either  side  by  a  wall  of  freestone,  with 
a  surface  fifteen  feet  four  inches  in  depth.  The  outer  wall  must  have  been 
twenty-six  feet  three  inches  in  height,  and  the  inner  wall  about  thirty  six 
feet.  The  towers,  which  served  as  posterns,  stand  at  equal  distances  from 
each  other,  and  contained  several  floors:  (i)  the  postern  proper,  which  was 

•  See  Marriott,  Facts  about  Pomfei.    (London  :  Watson  &  Viney.)     Several  of  these  marks  are 
found  cut  in  the  stones  of  cathedrals  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
t  Mazois,  Les  Ruines  dc  Pompii. 


DESTRUCTION   OF    POMPEI    AND   THE   EXCAVATIONS 


37 


used  as  a  gate ;  here  the  stairs  began  which  led  to  the  platform  and  the 
upper  storey  ;  (2)  a  vaulted  storey  on  a  level  with  the  ramparts,  pierced  with 
loopholes ;  (3)  the  upper  crenelated  platform.  Many  breaches  were 
made  in  the  walls  of  the  city  in  the  various  sieges  of  Pompei,  and  under  the 


•>V/'. 


"'flii^'^ 


'  ^^--7 


The  Walls  and  the  Towers 


Roman  rule  the  towers  were  dismantled,  and   the  fortifications  must  have 
been   allowed   to  fall  into  ruins. 

At  this  point  the  site  of  the  city  is  magnificent.  We  hover,  as 
it  were,  over  Pompei,  and  see  the  cloud-capped  peaks  of  the  Abruzzi 
blended  in  the  hazy  distance.  The  mountains  of  Sorrento  bow  their 
heads  towards  Capri,  and  the  sea,  bright  as  a  lake  of  silver,  flashes  in 
brilliant  contrast  to  the  massive  and  sombre  masonry  of  the  Oscan  walls 
and  the  towers. 


f| 


,<<-mmM 


i 
I 


I 


jft  POMPEI:    THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 

Still  following  the  ramparts,  we  reach  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum,  which 
looks  out  over  the  Way  of  Tombs.    This  gate  once  had  three  arches,  but  the 


I 


DESTRUCTION   OF   POMPEI    AND   THE   EXCAVATIONS 


39 


The  Walls  and  the  Towers 

central  arch,  the  entrance  for  chariots,  formerly  closed  by  a  portcullis  the 
grooves  of  which  are  still  visible,  no  longer  exists.     The  lateral  passages 


The  Gate  of  Herculaneum 

were  closed  by  doors  ;  the  pivots  are  still  in  their  places.  This  entrance 
to  the  town  was  naturally  the  most  frequented,  for  it  opened  on  the 
high-road  to  Herculaneum  and   Rome,  and  was  a  connecting-link  between 


the  Pa^^us  Augustus  Fe/ix  and  Pompei.     It  was  less  rough  and  massive 
than  the  other  gates  of  the  city,  and  was  built  of  ashlar  and  bricks  by  the 


View  from  inside  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum 

Romans,  and  cased  in  white  stucco.  Its  outer  wall  was  used  as  the  album, 
on  which  were  written  the  notices  and  regulations  of  the  magistrates.  It 
is  not  without  a  certain  elegance,  and  simulates  a  triumphal  arch,  opening 
on  to  the  Way  of  Tombs. 


n.  "  ii'iTiiiii  "l^mliii  ■hniif 


I 


PART  II 

THE  TOMBS,  THE  TEMPLES  AND  THE  VARIOUS  CULTS 


SSS^ZSSSSl 


tf^JUMmM,   '^LTlLiL  i^.JOite.^^,^^^-^ 


THE  WAY  OF  TOMBS  AND  CICERO'S  VILLA 

FROM  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum  stretches  the  Way  of  Tombs, 
bordered  by  monuments  to  the  dead,  like  the  Appian  Way  beyond 
Rome.  There  the  people  of  Pompei  built  mausoleums  to  the 
memory  of  those  who  had  held  great  public  offices  and  had  earned  their 
gratitude.  Among  these  are  many  more  modest  monuments,  for  by  the 
ancients  lack  of  sepulture  was  dreaded  more  than  death  itself,  and  was 
supposed  to  entail  an  after-life  of  eternal  torment.*  We  find  here  tombs  of 
pure  white  marble  covered  with  bas-reliefs  and  inscriptions  to  commemorate 
the  names  of  Marcus  Cerinius,  an  Augustalis,  and  of  Aulus  Veius,  son  of 
Marcus,  judge  and  duumvir,  quinquennalis  and  military  tribune,  elected  by  the 
people  by  decree  of  the  decurions.  Another  tomb  is  a  monument  to  Mamia, 
a  public  priestess  ;  in  front  is  a  semicircular  seat,  on  the  back  of  which  is  the 
inscription : 

MAMIAE-  P-  F-SACERDOTI  •  PVBLICAE  •  LOCVS 
SEPVLTVR     DATVS- DECVRIONVM • DECRETO 

There  is  a  glorious  view  from  the  platform  of  this  exedra.  The  bare 
pine-stems  with  their  heavy  crowns  of  foliage  stand  out  within  a  frame- 
work of  green  trees  flecked  with  russet  and  gold ;  in  the  distance  is  the 
Cape  of  Sorrento,  where  the  sea  winds,  like  an  azure  ribbon,  to  Castellamare, 
the  Stabia:  of  the  ancients,  and  the  cool  and  misty  tones  of  the  morning 

•  Fustel  de  Coulanges,  La  Cite  antique. 


I.  t 


I 


44  POMPEl:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND    ART 

veil  the  delicate  detail  of  this  divine  landscape,  the  fair  region  sung  by 
so  many  poets,  enamoured  of  its  ideal  beauty. 

From  this  favoured  point  of  vantage  let  us  turn  to  the  massive  tombs 
sleeping  under  the  shadow  of  sombre  cypresses  with  bowed  heads.  The  sun 
caresses  them,  flooding  them  with  warm  light  and  bringing  out  the  carved 
ornament  of  the  reliefs. 


THE  TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND  THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


4$ 


The  Way  of  Tombs 

This  street  of  the  dead  is  not  gloomy ;  the  mind  of  the  spectator  is 
touched  by  no  sense  of  melancholy ;  a  vague  sympathy,  and  even  a  gentle 
reverie,  steal  over  him  at  the  sight  of  the  rich  monuments  which  shelter  but 
a  little  dust,  sole  remnant  of  a  sumptuous  past 

Burial  here  was  the  apotheosis  of  lives  which  were  thus  publicly  com- 
memorated by  impressive  epitaphs.  To  one  man,  Umbricius  Scaurus,  son  of 
Aulus,  of  the  Menenian  tribe,  who  had  been  a  duumvir  of  justice,  the  decurions 
granted  a  piece  of  ground  on  which  to  erect  a  monument,  and  two  thousand 


^ 


sesterces  were  spent  on  his  funeral  and  in  setting  up  his  equestrian  statue 
in  the  Forum.  Bas-reliefs  of  stucco,  representing  a  combat  of  gladiators 
held  at  the  time  of  his  funeral,  ornament  the  base  of  his  tomb.* 
Farther  on  is  a  tomb  erected  by  Servilia  to  her  husband,  whom  she  calls 
''  the  friend  of  her  soul ";  and  we  also  read  the  name  of  Calventius  Quietus, 
an  Augustalis,  to  whom  the  honour  of  a  bisellium  had  been  granted,  t     This 


The  Exedra  of  Mamia's  Tomb 

chair  of  office  was  also  awarded  to  Caius  Munatius  Faustus,  an  Augustalis 
and  a  paganus,  whose  tomb  was  raised  by  the  efforts  of  his  freedwoman, 
Tyche  Nevoleia,  and  served  also  to  commemorate  herself  and  her  fellow- 
freedmen.  In  this  tomb  were  found  three  glass  urns  in  leaden  cases, 
containing  bones  and  ashes  mingled  with  a  liquid  from  the  funeral  libations, 
composed  of  wine,  oil,  and  water.     The  columbarium  was  filled  with  other 

*  See  Part  III. 

f  The  bisellium  was,  in  the  municipia,  the  curule  chair  of  the  magistrates. 


#!! 


■ 


) 


ll 


1 


46 


POMPEI:   THE  CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


earthenware   urns,  also   containing  human  ashes,  and  with  lamps.      The 
sculptured  head  in  relief  is  a  portrait  of  Tyche,  and  the  sailing-vessel  carved 


Tomb  of  Servilia 


on  one  side  of  the  tomb  may  be  an  allusion  to  the  profession  of  C.  Munatius 
Faustus,  but  is  more  probably  a  symbol  of  human  life  and  its  vicissitudes : 
man,  buffeted  by  the  waves,  comes  at  last  to  port,  furls  his  sails,  and  enters 
into  eternal  rest.      In  Petronius*  we  read  how  Trimalchio  gave  orders  to 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


47 


his  statuary  to  carve  on  his  tomb  a  vessel  in  full  sail — a  proof  that   the 


Epitaph  of  Calventius  Quietus 

symbol  of  the  ship  was  used  in  this  sense,*  but  as  Trimalchio  is  speaking 


!   « 


*  Sat,  Ixxi. 


Epitaph  of  Tjrche 

after  a  long  debauch,  it  is  natural  that  in  his  gay  intoxication  he  should  ask 
for  **  spreading  sails,"  an  image  of  his  careless  epicureanism. 

•  There  is  a  tombstone  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  in  Trastevere,  Rome,  on  which  the  same 
symbol  occurs. 


r     ' 


If 

i 

4 


.1 


48 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS   UFE   AND   ART 


Beside  the  monuments  of  Tyche  and  Caius  Munatius  stands  a 
memorial  triclinium,  where  the  freedman  Callistus,  on  the  death  of  his 
master  Cneus  Vibrius  Saturninus,  assembled  the  dead  man's  kinsfolk  and 
friends  at  a  funeral  banquet  in  memory  of  him. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  street  is  the  burial-place  of  Diomedes,  head  of 


Tombs  of  Tyche  and  Calventiiis  Quietus 

the  Pagus  Augustus  Felix ;  his  villa,  which  we  shall  notice  later  on,  stands 
opposite. 

Another  Tyche  had  a  sepulchral  cippus,  on  which  we  read  the  inscrip- 
tion :  "To  the  genius  *  (/'««tf«/)  of  Tyche,  veneria  of  Julia,  daughter  of 
Augustus  " — a  strange  office  that  was  not  considered  dishonourable  at  that 
time,  for  Tacitus  declares  that  Petronius  was  supposed  to  have  held  a 
similar  position  at  Nero's  court. 

Cippi  of  tufa  are  very  numerous  at  Pompei,  and  in  the  country  it  is  by 

•  The  genius  of  women  was  called  the  yuno. 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND  THE  VARIOUS  CULTS  49 

no  means  unusual  to  find  that  they  have  been  dug  up  by  tillers  of  the  soil, 
who  have  used  them  as  landmarks  for  their  plots  of  ground.  The  upper  por- 
tions of  these  memorial-stones  are  always  rounded,  and  often  hemispherical 


Memorial  Triclinium 

in  shape,  imitating  a  human  head ;  those  that  have  plaits  and  tresses 
carved  on  them  mark  the  grave  of  a  woman.  The  poorer  Pompeians  who  did 
not  belong  to  any  burial  society  had  to  be  content  with  this  simple  stone.* 


The  columbarium, 
tion,  was  reserved  for 
family,  or  society,  or  for 
the  same  divinity.  Those 
tain  rites  in  their  lifetime 
thought  that  after  death 
united  in  one  place,  for 


a  very  costly  construc- 
the  members  of  one 
the  fellow-worshippers  of 
who  had  shared  in  cer- 
could  not  endure  the 
they  should  not  be  re- 
they  believed   in  a  life 


Tomb  of  the  second  Tyche 

beyond  the  grave.  Thus  the  urns  contain  coins  to  pay  Charon, 
the  ferryman,  the  price  of  passage  in  his  infernal  boat ;  and  the 
libations  poured  on  the  tombs  at  funeral  feasts  were  intended  to  associate 
the  dead  themselves  with  the  banqueters  by  offering  them  a  portion  of 
the  food. 

*  Similar  cippi  are  found  in  Moslem  and  Israelitish  cemeteries. 

G 


H 


I- 


f 


.1 

I 


|o  POMPEl:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 

Another  curious  tomb,  the  marble  facing  of  which  has  disappeared, 
shows  its  square  bricks  arranged  in  horizontal  courses  and  in  opus  reticulatum. 
The  door  of  the  tomb,  with  the  pivots,  is  carved  out  of  one  solid  block 
of  marble,  and  is  closed  by  a  bolt  which  shoots  into  a  square  groove  in 
the  jamb.  The  interior  of  the  tomb  is  like  a  columbarium,  and  is  entered 
by  two  high  steps.     The  roof  is  vaulted  and  the  room  is  lighted  by  an  air- 


The  Tomb  with  the  marble  Door 

hole  opposite  the  door,  above  a  large  niche  surmounted  by  a  pediment  of 
tufa.  Oriental  alabaster  vases  were  found  here,  a  ring  set  with  an  engraved 
agate,  a  marble  vase  containing  bones,  and  several  amphorae.  This  tomb 
has  a  certain  importance,  but  is  without  inscriptions :  it  was  probably  used 
to  store  the  urns  containing  the  ashes  of  the  dead  who  had  just  been 
burned  at  the  ustrinum  hard  by,  until  the  tomb  that  was  to  receive  them 
had  been  built. 

In  this  neighbourhood  some  tombs  decorated  with  statues  were  found, 
and  Samnite  tombs  were  discovered  in  1873,  full  of  painted  vases  and  coins, 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES    AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS  51 


attributed  to  a  Cam- 
panian  city  (Irnum).* 
Potters'  shops  and  fur- 
naces, a  villa  from  which 
the  fine  mosaic  columns 
in  the  Naples  Museum 
are  taken,  and  an  inn 
also  lay  a  .little  back 
from  the  Way  of  Tombs. 
Not  far  away,  in  an 
atrium,  was  found  a 
sacellum    dedicated    to 


The  Ustrinum 
•  Fiorelli,  op.  cit. 


Interior  of  the  Tomb  with  the  marble  Door 

Hercules  ;  also  an  altar  with  a 
bas-relief  representing  a  man  with 
Hercules'  club,  and  with  a  cock 
by  his  side,  sacrificing  a  pig,  and 
holding  a  bowl. 

On  the  way  back  to  Pompei 

there  is  a  covered  exedra,  deco- 

'll  rated  with  paintings.    Beside  it  is 

;    the  tomb  known  as  the  Tomd  of 

%   the  Garlands,  where  the  famous 

amphora  of  blue  and  white  glass, 

representing  Cupids  as  vintagers,  t 

was  found.     The  artistic  value  of 

this   vase   is   so   great   that   the 

calcined   bones   it   contains   are, 

doubtless,   the   remains  of  some 

rich  Pompeian. 

Behind    the    provisional 

t  See  Part  VI.  iv.  3. 


«^f 


1 .' 


ja  POMPEI:   THE  CITY,   ITS   UFE   AND   ART 

columbarium  stands  the  ustrinum  that  has  caused  so  much  discussion. 
Only  the  four  walls  of  this  building  remain  ;  in  one  of  these  there  is  an 
opening.  Some  prefer  to  consider  it  a  sacellum,  but  as  the  dead  were 
burnt  and  their  ashes  are  found,  there  must  have  been  a  place  where 
they    were   cremated ;    and   as   this   building  and   the  columbarium  with 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES    AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


53 


The  Covered  Exedra 


the  marble  door  form  an  isolated  block,  it  is  possible  that  these 
four  walls  formed  part  of  the  ustrinum^  the  destination  of  funeral 
processions. 

Our  knowledge  of  ancient  burial-places,  supplemented  by  the  descrip- 
tions of  classic  writers,  enables  us  to  form  an  exact  idea  of  the  funeral 
customs  of  the  Romans.  When  a  man  lay  at  the  point  of  death  his 
relations  came  to  his  side  and  kissed  him  on  the  mouth  as  if  to  receive  his 
last  thoughts  in  his  dying  breath.  After  the  farewells,  often  very  clamorous, 
were  over,  the  corpse  was  washed  in  warm  water  and  anointed  with  per- 
fumed oil.    The  dead  man  then  lay  in  state  on  a  bed  in  the  atrium,  dressed 


in  his  robes  and  insignia,  with  his  head  bare  and  turned  towards  the 
prothyrum  (entrance),  the  smoke  of  incense  rising  round  him.  In  the  street 
boughs  of  cypress  placed  in  the  doorway  gave  warning  to  the  passers-by  of 
the  approaching  funeral.  Then,  often  after  an  interval  of  seven  days  in  the 
case  of  rich  men,  the  corpse  was  carried  to  the  pyre  with  great  ceremony. 
The  tibicenes  led  the  way,  the  muffled  notes  of  their  flutes  rising  in  plain- 
tive  dirges.     Professional    mourners  followed,    simulating  grief,    and  pro- 


>/ 

i]—"^ 


The  Way  of  Tombs 


claiming  the  virtues  of  the  dead:  next  came  the  portraits  of  deceased's 
ancestors,  who  were  thus  associated  with  the  ceremony.  Parvenus 
of  mean   descent   had   a  series   of  imaginary   portraits    made   for   them 

• 

Last  in  the  train  followed  the  relations,  friends,  and  freedmen,  and 
when  the  procession  had  passed  through  the  Forum  in  honour  of  the  dead 
it  halted  at  the  ustrinum,  where  the  pyre  was  built :  a  near  relation  set 
fire  to  it  with  averted  face  ;  the  rest  called  on  the  spirit  of  the  dead  man 
with  loud  cries.  Finally  the  ashes  were  gathered  up,  sprinkled  with  milk  and 
wine,  and  placed  in  an  urn,  which  was  afterwards  enclosed  in  a  tomb. 
Each  mourner  then  said  farewell  to  the  spirit  who  was  now  a  dweller  in  the 


iiMiflitMiirtaiiiiiii 


c  «k 


if 


ii 


54 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE  AND   ART 


i 


shades,  saying  :  "  May  the  earth  lie  lightly  on  you  !  Farewell,  pure  soul ! 
May  your  tomb  be  covered  with  roses ! "  and  so  on — a  veritable  litany  of 
tender  and  graceful  wishes.  Eight  days  after  these  rites  tRe  friends  of  the 
dead  man  came  to  the  tomb  to  a  funeral  meal  composed  of  water,  warm 
milk  and  honey,  oil,  the  blood  of  sacrificed  animals,  and  little  shells  filled 
with  half  an  egg* 

The  site  of  the  Way  of  Tombs,  in  which  these  funeral  ceremonies 
took  place,  was  one  of  the  finest  in  the  city,  and  hence  many  fine 
properties  of  wealthy  citizens  were  found  here,  as,  for  example,  the 
large  villa  looking  on  a  little  alley  close  to  the  tomb  of  Mamia,  where 
baths,  some  beautiful  paintings  of  satyrs,  /unamdu/i,  and  centaurs,  and 
some  mosaics,  were  found. 

There  has  been  some  discussion  about  the  name  of  this  building. 
Some  call  it  the  house  of  Crassus  Frugi,  and  others  say  that  it  must  have 
been  the  villa  of  Cicero,  who  died  more  than  a  century  before  the  destruc- 
tion of  Pompei.  It  is  possible  that  both  are  right,  for  the  last  owner  of  the 
villa  may  have  been  one  Crassus  Frugi,  as  an  inscription  seems  to  prove. 
If  we  refer  to  the  evidence  of  Cicero  himself,  we  find  he  says  :  "  I  am  here 
in  a  very  pleasant  place,  and,  what  is  more,  a  very  quiet  one  ;  a  man  who  is 
writing  is  safe  from  interruption  here  .  .  .  my  house  may  be  seen  from 
Baicc  or  Misenum."  Again  he  writes  :  "  I  wonder  how  far  the  eye  can 
reach  without  playing  one  false  ?  I  can  see  Catullus'  estate  at  Cumae  from 
here,  but  I  cannot  see  my  own  at  Pompei.  There  is  no  obstacle  in  the 
way,  but  my  sight  does  not  reach  so  far." 

The  villas  in  the  Pagus  Augustus  Felix  looked  out  on  the  sea,  and  were 
thus  free  from  noise  ;  and  Cicero's  villa  must  have  been  situated  in  that 
part  of  the  town,  since  he  could  see  it  from  Baise.  Moreover,  the  situation 
is  admirable  and  the  view  wonderfully  beautiful.  The  mountains  lying 
on  the  waters  of  the  bay — "Ai  croupe  voluptueuse.comtne  deshanchedefemme" 
as  Gautier  describes  them — present  an  ever-changing  aspect,  and  the  waves, 

•  Juvenal. 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS  CULTS  55 

breaking  into  surf,  send  inland  the  salt  savour  of  the  sea,  covering  the 
Isoletta  di  Rivigliano  with  a  cloud  of  spray,  for  the  island  rock  is  at 
constant  war  with  the  sea.  In  the  distance  it  shows  like  a  buoy  for  the 
coast,  a  small  dark  blot  on  the  waters,  its  sombre  note  accentuating  the 
bright  beauty  of  the  enchantress  Capri. 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


57 


II 


VENUS  PHYSICA,  THE  PATRONESS  OF  POMPEI— THE  WORSHIP 
OF  VENUS,  AND  HER  TEMPLE 

IN  that  fair  country  where  all  invites  to  pleasure  and  delights  the  eye,  it 
is  not  surprising  that  Venus  should  have  chosen  for  her  domain 
Pompei  the  delectable. 

Venus,  it  seems,  was  the  patroness  of  Pompei.  Not  only  was  the 
Roman  colony  named  Colonia  Veneria  Cornelia*  but  the  graffiti  found  on 
the  walls  of  the  city  allude  to  the  fact. 

Candida  me  docvit  nigras 

ODISSE   PVELLASODERO- SEPOTERO     SED   NON    INVITVS 

AMABO 
SCRIPSIT   VENVS-  FiSICA-  POMPEIANA.t 

"  A  fair  girl  has  taught  me  to  hate  dark  women. 

"  I  will  hate  them  if  I  can,  but  I  will  not  love  them  against  my 
will." 

According  to  some  authorities,  the  second  part  of  the  inscription  was 
written  by  another  hand,  in  answer  to  the  first  hexameter,  and  should  be 
read:   **  Oderis  sed  iieras  .  .  .  non  inviius  amabo."      This  may  be  rendered  : 

'*'  The  name  given  to  the  colony  was  derived,  according  to  some  distinguished  archeologists, 
from  the  name  borne  by  Sylla,  who  colonised  Pompei:  Epaphroditus,  in  honour  of  Venus- Fortuna. 

f  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  1520.    A  graffito  found  in  1845  in  a  lupanar.    The  answer  is,  therefore, 
easily  understood.    The  two  lines  are  variations  on  two  lines  of  Propertius  and  Ovid : 

Donee  me  docuit  castas  odisse  puellas  (Prop.  Eleg.  I.  i,  5). 
Odero,  si potero;  si  non,  invitus  amabo  (Ovid,  Amor.  III.). 


"You  hate  them,  but  you  will  return  to  them."      Signed  :  "Venus  Physica 
of  Pompei." 

Another  inscription,  apparently  earlier,  recommends  a  candidate  for 
office,  and  concludes  with  an  invocation  to  the  Venus  of  Pompei : 

N  •  BARCHA   II  •  V  •  V  •  BO  •  VFITA  •  VOBEIS 
VENUS-  POMP-  SACRA-  •  •  •* 

Again,  there  is  another  inscription  which  also  proves  the  existence  of 
the  worship  of  Venus  Physica  :  t 

IMPERIO- VENERIS-  FISICAE 

I    O  -  M  • 

ANTISTA  •  METHE- ANTISTI 

PRIMIGENI 

EX-D- D 

This  cult  of  Venus  was  the  worship  of  Woman,  the  cult  of  grace 
personified.  The  sorceress  of  Pompei,  "  with  her  violet  eyelids,"  was  ruler 
of  this  country  by  right  of  her  feline  vigour,  her  Alexandrian  refinement,  and 
her  Campanian  charm.  She  received  all  sensual  homage  with  unfailing 
favour,  and  the  worship  of  Venus  Physica  by  wealthy  Romans  knew  no 
bounds  in  their  debauches  at  Pompei,  where  every  new  excess  was  hailed 
as  another  triumph  of  the  goddess.  Hence  Venus  Physica  became  at 
Pompei  the  outward  symbol  of  the  exaltation  of  the  very  sense  of  love,  and 
we  must  accept  this  cult  in  its  true  pagan  significance,  as  the  feminine 
expression  of  the  generative  principle  deified.  Of  all  the  forces  of  nature, 
procreation,  as  the  very  origin  of  life,  was  most  calculated  to  impress 
the  pagan  imagination  ;  and  it  was  rational  to  adore  the  causes  of  such 
great  effects.  But  such  a  principle  inevitably  gave  rise  to  excesses  by 
letting  loose  in  men  all  the  elements  of  passion,   when  their  senses  were 

*  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  26. 

f  Orelli,  p.  282,  n.  4370.     Other  inscriptions  recorded  in  the  first  book  mention  the  name  of 
Venus  and  Pompei. 

H 


58 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND    ART 


i  !l 


i  t 


over-stimulated  by  pleasure.     The  Epicurean  poet  Lucretius  throws  some 
light  on  the  subject  of  Venus  Physica  when  he  writes :  * 

"  The  desire  of  generation  is  only  roused  by  sight  of  the  human  form, 
and  triumphs  only  at  the  very  seat  of  love.  .  .  .  Passion  is  only  the  foretaste 
and  presentiment  of  pleasure.     Such  is  our  Venus,  such  the  origin  of  the 

name  of  Love !  " 

Such  were  the  sentiments  embodied  in  the  Venus  Physica,  beautiful, 
voluptuous,  insatiable,  and  logically  sterile ;  the  most  frenzied  expression  of 

passion. 

The  walls  of  Pompei  are  very  instructive  on  this  head,  and  the 
emblems  that  are  found  in  so  many  houses  and  public  places  to  ward  off  the 
evil  eye,  are  sufficient  evidence  of  the  worship  of  Venus  Physica.  All 
the  various  cults  of  the  goddess  bore  more  or  less  the  impress  of  the 
same  ideas,  and  the  dissolute  manners  of  the  age,  combined  with  the 
characteristic  tendencies  of  the  Pompeians,  made  the  city  another  Paphos,  a 
city  of  pleasure  par  excellence,  where  beauty  of  surroundings  was  enhanced 
by  a  delicious  climate. 

Although  the  people  of  Pompei  all  joined  in  one  common  worship  of 
Venus,  we  can  see,  from  the  pictures  and  sculptures  in  the  city,  that  Venus 
was  honoured  under  many  different  aspects.     Besides  the  Venus  Pandemos, 
to  whom  the  Jrra//V^  used  to  offer  a  white  kid,t  there  was  Aphrodite,  the 
mistress  of  Mercury,  and  mother  of  Hermaphroditus,  who  is  frequently  repre- 
sented in  the  art  of  Pompei.     Then  there  was  the  Marine  Venus,  born 
from  a  divine  seed  adrift  on  the  sea;  Venus,  the  daughter  of  Jupiter  and 
Dione,  the  mistress  of  Mars  and  wife  of  Vulcan,  was  also  worshipped ;  and 
again,  the  Phoenician  Astarte,  the  lover  of  Adonis,  who  was  confused  with 
Isis,  and  had  many  analogies  with  the  Syrian  goddess  beloved  of  Atys. 
In  addition  to  all  these  popular  aspects  of  the  goddess,  we  meet  with  an 
ideal  type,  Venus  Urania,  or  the  Heavenly  Venus,  daughter  of  the  sky  and 
light,  the  protectress  of  noble  love.J 

Lucretius,  chapter  iv.        \  Lucian,  Dialogut  of  Courtesans.        J  Apulcius,  Apology  oj  Plato, 


THE   TOMBS,   THE    TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


59 


Until  1898  no  temple  had  been  identified  with  that  of  the  patroness  of 
Pompei,  but  in  the  course 
of  the  excavations  of  that 
year  a  sanctuary  was  found 
that,  for  various  reasons, 
we  may  suppose  to  have 
been  dedicated  to  Venus, 
although  no  definite  object 
relating  to  a  special  cult 
has  been  discovered.  A 
woman's  head  of  Alexandrian 
porcelain  of  a  greenish 
colour,  and  also  the  fragments  The  Marine  venus 

of  a  marble  statuette,  many  of  the 
details  of  which  recall  the  Balking 
Venus  inspired  by  the  Aphrodite  of 
Cnidos,  were,  however,  found  here. 

From  the  cella  of  this  temple, 
which  stands  near  the  sea,  could  be 
heard  the  sound  of  the  waves,  which 
recalled  the  birth  of  the  goddess. 
Two  Epigrams  in  the  Greek  Anthology 
refer  to  this  :  "  This  precinct  is  Venus' 
own,  for  it  is  her  pleasure  at  all  times 
to  see  the  shore  of  the  flashing  sea. 
And  about  the  place  the  sea  is  full  of 
reverent  fear  at  the  sight  of  the  goddess' 
statue."     Again:   "Posthumus,  O 

The  Venus  of  Pompei  r^r  llml  u*  1 

(From  a  Painting  in  the  Casa  di  Caslore  e  PoUuce)      C^ytheraia,     liaS    DUllt    tnCC   tlllS    temple 

washed  by  the  sea  where  thou  wert  born,  and  around  thee  plays  the  sea 
that  covers  thee  with  its  foam  at  the  breath  of  the  west  winds." 


6o 


POMPEI:   THE  CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE  VARIOUS   CULTS  6i 


i 


The  Temple  of  Venus,  therefore,  must  have  been  built  as  near  the  sea 
as  possible,  and  the  only  place  where  we  may  now  look  for  it  is,  in  fact,  the 
site  of  the  new  discovery,  between  the  Basilica  and  the  Gate  of  the 
Seashore.  Finally,  a  picture  which  is  still  to  be  seen  in  a  house  in  the  city, 
just  opposite  the  temple,  shows  Venus*  landing  on  the  beach  of  Pompei, 
borne  by  a  Triton  and  supported  by  Love.  The  goddess,  who  has  a  blue 
nimbus  round  her  head,  holds  a  golden  sceptre,  sign  of  her  sovereignty ;  a 
woman,  personifying  the  city,  presents  offerings  laid  on  a  flower-wreathed 


Ruins  of  the  supposed  Temple  of  Venus 

altar.     The  sea  bounds  the  horizon  of  the  picture,  and  above  it  is  painted 
a  warm  and  glowing  sky. 

The  temple  itself  was  destroyed  by  the  earthquake  of  the  year  63,  and 
was  in  process  of  reconstruction  at  the  time  of  the  eruption,  so  there 
remains  nothing  but  \h^podiu?n,  and  some  fragments  of  the  walls  of  the  cella  ; 
the  pedestal  that  once  supported  the  statue  of  the  goddess  stands  bare 
and  solitary.  All  round  lie  scattered  great  blocks  of  travertine  brought  to 
be  hewn,  fluted  columns,  marble  capitals,  and  fragments  of  denticulated 
friezes,  as  sharp  and  clear-cut  as  if  they  had  just  come  from  the  workmen's 
hands.  The  proposed  restoration  would  have  enlarged  the  podium,  where 
the  additional  courses  show  that  a  change  was  to  be  made  in  the  posterior 
fa9ade ;  the  front  of  the  temple,  on  the  other  hand,  had  been  reduced  in 

*  See  coloured  plate,  No.  L 


size  by  a  cutting  which  would  have  done  away  with  a  large  portion  of  it. 
The  slabs  of  white  marble,  with  the  bronze  pivots  on  which  the  doors  were 
to  turn,  are  in  place,  and  do  not  appear  to  have  been  used.  From  the  cella 
the  sea  can  be  seen,  and  the  temple  looks  towards  Stabiai, 
where  the  bay  curves  into  the  coast. 

A  single  column,  very  short  and  thick,  lies  in  the  sort 
of  workshop  into  which  the  space  about  the  temple  had  been 
converted.  Beside  it  are  an  unfinished  base  and  a  capital  of 
the  same  diameter  (the  latter  barely  began),  waiting  to  be 
put  into  position.  Perhaps  this  column  was  the  pedestal  for 
a  large  statue  of  the  goddess.  Venus  would  then  have  ^  ,a  Paintbg) 
looked  out  over  the  sea,  and  sailors  would  have  invoked  her  as  they  entered 
the  harbour.  This  ancient  temple  had  a  large  rectangular  peribolus—^ 
sacred  precinct  surrounded  by  a  portico,  the  outline  of  which  may  be 
traced  by  the  gutter  which  ran  at  the  foot  of  the  colonnade  to  catch 
the  water  from  the  roof. 

Of  all  the  various  images  of  Venus  represented  at  Pompei,  the  most 
curious  is  the  Pompeian  Venus.  The  goddess  is  crowned  with  a  golden 
diadem  and  dressed  in  a  blue  tunic  studded  with  yellow  stars.     She  leans 

on  an  oar,  and  holds  a  sceptre  in 
one  hand  and  a  myrtle  or  olive 
branch  in  the  other  :  Love,  stand- 
ing by  her  side,  offers  her  a 
mirror. 

Doves  offered  to  Venus  (a  Painting)  The     Same     figure,    with    the 

same  attributes,  is  also  to  be  seen  in  a  large  frieze  representing  the 
Marriage  of  Hercules  and  Hebe.  In  the  centre  of  this  composition 
is  a  temple— the  Temple  of  Venus— in  the  middle  of  which  stands  the 
goddess.  Love,  by  her  side,  armed  with  a  helmet  and  shield,  holds 
the  sceptre  with  Venus,  and  on  the  other  side  Priapus,  dressed  in 
green,  lifts  up  his  tunic.     On  the  steps  of  the  temple,  Hebe,  young  and 


'h 


'mttttiatimiim 


6»  POMPEI:   THE  CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 

graceful,  gives  her  hand  to  Hercules,  who  carries  his  club  and  the  skin 
of  the  Nemajan  lion.  Behind  him  pastophori  bear  an  tcdicula  on  a 
ferculum  upon  their  shoulders,  and  after  them  two  other  persons,  wearing 
the  toga  with  the  narrow  stripe,  carry  the  tree  of  the  Garden  of  the 
Hesperides.  Two  other  figures,  very  much  defaced,  lead  the  way  before 
these.  On  the  other  side  of  the  temple  a  priestess  comes  forward  with  a 
sistrum,  thus  associating  Isis  with  the  ceremony  :  she  is  followed  by  two 
priests  wearing  the  toga,  and  bearers  carry  on  their  shoulders  a  ferculum 


The  Marriage  of  Hercules  and  Hebe  (Painting) 

on  which  lies  some  object,  so  defaced  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  what  it  is, 
though  Fiorelli  supposes  it  to  be  a  phallus.*  A  white  ox,  adorned  for 
sacrifice,  is  followed  by  a  man  bearing  a  lamb  on  his  shoulders ;  and  the 
procession  is  closed  by  two  men  carrying  a  throne  wreathed  with  boughs,  a 
silver  crown  lying  on  the  seat.  It  is  curious  to  find  Venus,  the  patron  of 
Pompei,  presiding  over  the  marriage  of  Hercules  and  Hebe,  but  the 
goddess  of  Love  could  not  have  been  dissociated  from  the  hero's  adven- 
tures. Hercules  was,  moreover,  according  to  the  ancients,  the  founder  of 
Pompei,  and  it  is  supposed  that  there  was  a  temple  dedicated  to  him  in  the 
Triangular  Forum  or  Greek  Agora. 

'''  This  detail  recalls  the  processions  of  Lampsacus. 


Ill 


THE  GREEK  TEMPLE 

OF  the  Greek  temple  which  was  built  about  the  sixth  or  fifth 
century  B.C.,  nothing  now  remains  but  the  podium,  the  steps,  and 
some  few  capitals  of  the  Greek  Doric  order.*  The  temple  was 
pseudo-dipteral,  and  was  built  on  the  same  lines  as  the  little  temple  of  Ceres 
at  Paestum,  the  only  difference  being  that,  instead  ofsix  columns  in  the  facade 
(hexastyle),  the  Greek  temple  of  Pompei  had  seven,  which  must  have  given 
it  a  peculiar  appearance,  for  the  central  column  must  have  stood  immediately 
in  front  of  the  door  of  the  cclla.  This  feature  is  very  rare  ;  the  only  other 
known  instance  is  in  the  back  of  the  colossal  temple  of  Zeus  at  Agrigentum 
(where  the  columns  measure  55  feet  in  height  by  11  feet  in  diameter  at 
the  base).  The  Doric  temple  at  Pompei  is  only  102  feet  long  by  67  feet 
wide,  and  its  columns  measure  4  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base.  (The 
Temple  of  Ceres  at  Paestum  is  105  feet  long  by  46  feet  6  inches  wide,  and 
its  columns  measure  5  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base.) 

We  reproduce  a  drawing  of  the  Temple  of  Ceres  at  Paestum  in  its 
present  state,  to  give  an  approximate  idea  of  the  old  Greek  temple  of 
Pompei. 

Three  small  altars,  and  an  enclosure  that  was  used,  it  is  supposed,  to 
preserve  the  ashes  of  victims,  are  situated  in  front  of  the  facade  of  the 
temple.     From  this  point  the  view  is  magnificent :  the  massive  podium  rises 

♦  This  temple  may,  perhaps,  have  been  dedicated  to  Apollo  and  Diana.    (Sogliano,  Guide  tg 
Pombei.) 


§4  POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 

in  sombre  simplicity  against  the  golden  sky,  and  the  distant  sea  flashes  and 
vibrates  like  a  burnished  blade,  the  whole  forming  a  startling  contrast  of 
brilliant  light  with  intense  black  shadow. 

A  small  monopteral  temple,  which  is  really  a  bidental,  lies  a  little  farther 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


«5 


The  Greek  Temple 


forward,  and  encloses  a/w/m/.  The  spot  had  been  struck  by  lightning,  and 
Numerius  Trebius,  the  chief  magistrate  (medivhicticus)  had  it  consecrated, 
according  to  an  Oscan  inscription  found  on  the  fragments  of  the  pediment ; 


The  Temple  of  Ceres  at  Taestum 


-^rt-^ 


for   every   place   where   Jupiter   had   shown    his    power    became    sacred 
ground. 

It  seems  strange  that  so  little  should  remain  of  this  temple,  but  it  had 
probably  fallen  into  ruins  long  before  the  earthquake  of  the  year  63,  and 
its  stones  had  been  used    for  other  buildings.     At  that  time,    Propertius 


writes,*  the  ancient  religion  was  neglected  ;  "  the  spider  covers  with  her  web 
the  altars  of  the  gods,  and  the  grass  grows  over  their  abandoned  temples  to 


The  Greek  Temple 

our  shame."  Much  more,  then,  were  the  ancient  temples  that  had  been 
destroyed  left  to  decay,  and  rarely  rebuilt.  Moreover,  the  people  of  Pompei, 
true  citizens  of  their  age,  gladly  welcomed  new  faiths,  and  deserted  the 
obsolete  gods,  who  lost  authority  as  they  grew  old. 

*  Book  II.,  El.  vi. 


Ufiiliii 


■■'•'      "*' 


IV 


THE  TEMPLE  OF  APOLLO— APOLLO  THE  GOD  OF  AUGURY 

IN  spite  of  the  licence  that  reigned  in  Pompei,  and  the  decadence  of 
an  age  that  sought  for  stimulus  in    new    sensations,   there   was   an 
ancient  cult  that  was  still  observed  in  the  Campanian  city :  that  of 
Apollo,    whose    temple    had    even    been  enlarged   and   beautified.      The 

sanctuary  was  built  before  the  Samnite  period, 
and  at  first  consisted  only  of  a  cellaJ'^  The 
portico  of  forty-eight  columns  that  surrounds  it  is 
of  more  recent  date,  and  was  built  when  the 
lighter  Ionic  style  succeeded  the  severe  simplicity 
^iiiv      „,-      ,„  .f  of  the  Doric.     Its  walls  were  also 

^  m  W"^=^e3^7ltfM^^  decorated   with   scenes   from   the 

Iliad,  and  cells  for  the  priests 
were  added.  The  temple  is  hexa- 
style  ;  at  the  foot  of  the  flight  of 
steps  is  the  principal  altar,  in- 
'^\-'-)  scribed   with    the    names    of    the 

Bronze  Diana.  From  the  Temple  of  ApoUo  (Naples  Museum)  donorS.  An  I Onic  Column  of  Phry- 
gian marble  supporting  a  sun-dial  t  stands  to  the  left  of  the  temple-steps, 
and  on  a  tablet  of  marble  affixed  to  it  are  inscribed  the  names  of  the  two 
duumvirs  who  presented  it  to  the  temple. 

The  portico  that  surrounds  the  peribolus  had  a  roof  supported  by  a 
*  Fiorelli.  f  Probably  in  allusion  to  ApoIlO'Helios  (Sogliano). 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


67 


high  wall,  which  completely  enclosed  the  temple  and  its  various  depen- 
dencies, save  for  a  wide  opening  left  for  the  door.  Six  pedestals  placed  in 
the  area  upheld  statues  of  Venus  and  Hermaphroditus,  Maia  (?)  and  Mercury, 
Apollo  Sagittarius*  and  Diana. (  This  bronze  statue  of  Diana  with  enamel 
eyes\eems  to  have  been  once  used  as  a  mouthpiece  for  oracles  by  the 
priests, t  who  spoke  through  a  hole  in  the  back  of  the  neck  ;  the  sound  of 
the  voice  issued  through  the  parted  lips. 

At  the  entrance  of  the  temple  there  were  lustral  basins  (corresponding 
to  the  holy  water  stoups  in  churches),  where  the  worshippers  of  the  god 


The  Temple  of  Apollo 

made  their  ablutions  before  invoking  him.  Those  who  were  present  at  the 
sacrifices  stood  in  the  peribolus,  for  the  cella,  which,  like  most  of  those 
in  the  temples  of  Pompei,  is  very  small  and  contained  nothing  but  the 
sacred  statue  of  the  god,  was  only  accessible  to  priests,  camilli,  and 
certain  initiated  persons. 

To  the  left,  on  the  ground  near  the  entrance  of  the  cella,  is  the  stone 
omphalos,  the  symbol  of  Apollo,  which  is  represented  on  certain  coins  of 
Greece  and  Naples,  on  some  old  vases,  and  in  various  paintings  in  Pompei. 
The  reticulations  on  the  ovoid  stone  are  worn  away,  except  on  the  left  side, 
which  is  still  rough  to  the  touch.  The  existence  of  the  omphalos  shows  that 
at  Pompei  Apollo  was  worshipped  more  especially  as  the  god  of  prophecy 
*  See  the  Statue  of  Apollo,  Part  VL,  iii.  2.  f  Fiorclli. 


6S 


POMPEI:    THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND   ART 


and  divination  ;  and  the  tripod  on  one  of  the  pillars  on  the  right-hand  side 
of  the  area  further  emphasises  this  aspect  of  the  cult. 

An  evidence  of  the  antiquity  of  the  Apollo-worship  at  Pompei  is  found 
in  the  pavement  of  the  celia,  where  is  an  Oscan  inscription,  traced  in  dots, 


TheCella  of  the  Temple  of  Apollo  and  the  Omphalos 

on  a  band  of  marble.     It  is  in  retrograde  writing,  and  Mau  translates  it  as 
follows : 


'.<••   >i~..'-n   : 


•HH3>ih^v)Ki\>'-"'^'lKHI^)j\/ 


Oscnn  Inscription 


O  Kanip  [anil's  .  .  .  Jk'a]  isstur  kombcnni  \eis  tangtnitd]  Apclluncis 
eitiiiv  [ad  .  .  .  opo]  annu  aaman  [ajff~\  ed. 

i.e.  O(ppius)  Camp(anius)  by  the  decision  of  the  Council,  and  with  the 
treasure  of  Apollo,  has  caused  to  be  executed  a  certain  work  (paving  the 
temple?).  In  the  cclla  the  following  Latin  inscription  was  also  found  :  •*  To 
the  goddess  Te/iits,  Marcus  Fabius  the  Second  makes  his  voiv  by  permission 
of  the  crdiles  Auhts  Ordianius  and  Tiberius  Julius  Ru/us." 

The  omphalos,  the  tripod,  and  the  goddess  Tellus  (identical  with 
Ga^a,  the  Earth)  recall  the  Temple  of  Delphi,  famous  for  the  worship 
of  Apollo.  This  temple  was  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  goddess 
Gxa,  who  was  worshipped  there  before  Apollo,  and  hence  the  oracle  of 


«r*" 


PL.    Ill 


^IMHt,' 


t 


^^ 


f 


f 


I 


rl:;:' 


1.  —    I'AINTINd    OF    Tin:    THERMOPOLIUM    I\   THK   Slrada   di   Moniirio 


2.   —  THE    FOUNTAIN   OF    YOUTH 
(painting  im  a  HoiiiE  OF  THE   Vico  di  Tesmo) 


3.  —   A   FOIU:i(;\    LANDSCAPE 
(i>Ai.\ri.\c   IX   THE    Casa   del  Centenario) 


( 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


69 


Delphi  was  essentially  an  oracle   of  the  Earth,  of  which  Gaea  was  the 
personification.* 

The   serpent   coiled   round   the   07nphalos    as  represented   in  several 


A  Sacrifice  to  Apollo  (a  PaioiinR  in  the  House  of  the  Veltii) 

paintings   is  the    Python,    the   skin  of  which  covered   the   tripod  of  the 
Pythoness.      It  is   therefore  depicted   lying   lifeless   about   the   omphalos. 


y.^=^ 


a  trophy  of  the  victorious  Apollo.  Occasionally  the 
omphalos  t  serves  as  the  base  of  Apollo's  tripod,  and  in 
shape  resembles  an  ^gg,  which  among  the  Egyptians  was 
the  emblem  of  the  world,  or  rather  of  the  fertile  breast  of 
Gaea,  the  Universal  Mother,  the  most  ancient  of  the  gods, 
"who  nourishes  all  living  things  on  her  soil."j 

The  Pythian  Apollo,  armed  with  the  bow,  was  the 


Apollo  Medicus  of  the  Romans,  whose  arrows  were  both  ^ .    ^^^^^^^"^ 

Tnpod  with  the  Omphalos 


the  cause  and  the  cure  of  all  the  sickness  man  is  heir  to  ;§     ifte  vftt^^  '"'  "°"' 

♦  Delphi  was  considered  by  the  ancients  as  the  central  point,  the  navel  of  the  world. 

f  We  should  remember  that  in  the  earliest  times  the  gods  were  worshipped  under  the 
primitive  form  of  stones  (litholatry) ;  at  Paphos,  the  famous  sanctuary  of  Aphrodite,.the  Asiatic 
Venus  was  represented  under  the  form  of  a  conical  white  stone  surrounded  by  torches ;  and 
Tacitus  relates  that  Titus,  when  he  visited  Cyprus,  saw  the  goddess  represented  in  this  form  in 
her  temple.  Hercules  in  Boeotia,  Eros  at  Thcspis,  Diana  at  Perga,  and  Apollo  at  Ambracia,  were 
symbolised  by  pyramids  of  stone  of  various  sizes.  The  Omphalos  of  Apollo  was  the  only  one  of 
such  stones  which  was  reticulated;  but  other  divine  stones  were  often  draped  for  ceremonies. 
Thus,  on  the  coins  of  Selucia,  the  stone  of  Zeus  Cassios  is  covered  with  a  network  resembling  that 
of  the  omphalos  at  Delphi.— (Saglio,  Dictionary  of  A  ntiquitics.) 

I  Homeric  Hymn  to  Gaea. 

§  In  432  B.C.  the  Romans  built  a  temple  to  Apollo  Medicus  in  accordance  with  a  vow  they  had 
made  during  the  plague  ( Li vy  xU  51).  According  to  the  same  author,  the  Romans  from  the 
beginning  consulted  the  Delphic  oracle. 


POMPEI:  THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


THE   TOMBS,   THE  TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS  CULTS  71 


the  serpent  Python  is  the  symbol  of  the  noxious   vapours   arising   from 

the  earth  under  the  fierce  action  of  the  sun. 
Phoebus  Apollo,  the  destroyer,  is  compensated 
for  by  the  Pythian  Apollo,  who  uses  the  same 
arrows  to  destroy  the  monster,  chasing  away 
Fever  *  and  bringing  back  Life  again.  Thus 
men  first  prayed  to  Apollo  to  temper  his  heat, 
and  further  invoked  the  god  in  times  of  plague 
and  public  calamity,  when  expiatory  sacrifices 
were  offered  to  him. 

Apollo  is  also  represented  at  Pompei  as 
Apollo  Citharaedus  in  various  sculptures  and 
paintings ;  he  then  has  an  aureole  or  rays  of 
light  round  his   head.     In   this   aspect   he   is 

Phoebus  the  giver  of  good,  the  sender  of  the 

A'po.,oandtbeOn,pha.os[Zing,      gentle  light  which   gives  hantiony.  gracefully 

symbolised  by  the  Cithara.      It  was 

the  same  musical  sentiment,  the  effect 

of  inspiration,    which   caused   Apollo 

to  be  considered  as  the  divine  source 

whence  poets  drew  their  purest  and 

most  exalted  songs,  and  his  inspiration  J^ 

is  also  the  prophetic  sense,  of  which    -^^^i 

Apollo    is    the    incarnation.      Apollo 

is  likewise  a   prophet    through    the 

medium  of  his  oracle,  and  the  patron 

of  colonies,  which  were  often  founded 

by  command  of  oracles,  t 

Pompei,  a  thoroughly  Hellenised  ApoUo  (Painting  in  the  Casa  del  CUansta) 

city,  also  built  a  temple  to  Apollo  Delphinius,  the  god  of  navigation,  the 
■■■■  At  Rome  there  was  a  Temple  to  Fever.  f  Decharme,  Mythologu  de  la  Grict  amtique. 


etymology  of  whose  name  is  confused  with  that  of  the  word  "  dolphin  " 
(AiX^Iv)  ;  for  Apollo,  the  god  of  navigation,  is  the  Dolphin  whose  form  he 
had  assumed.*     In  other  pictures  the  crow,  the  bird  of  omen,   is  repre- 
sented  by  the   side   of  Apollo,  who   has   his   tripod,  another   symbol  of 
his  power  of  divination. 

*  Homeric  Hymn  to  Apoll.  Pyth. 


-•■■"^t. 


THE   ISIS  OF   POMPEI-THE   ISIUM-THE  CULT  OF   ISIS-WOMEN 

DEVOTEES  OF  ISIS 


THE    cult  of   Isis  was   even   more   popular   than  that   of  Apollo  in 
Pompei,   especially  during   the  latter  period  of  the  city's  history. 
Her  temple  was   undoubtedly  the  richest  religious  building  there, 
owing  to  the  great  popularity  of  the  Egyptian  religion,  which  had  long 
been  accepted  at  Pompei,  though  at  first  it  made  litde  way  in  Rome  itself. 
At  Rome,  indeed,  we  read  in  Valerius  Maximus  that,  in  the  year  534 
after   the   foundation   of   the   city    (more   than   two   centuries   before   the 
Christian  era),  the  Senate  gave  orders  for  the  demolition  of  the  Temple 
of  Isis  and  Serapis.     No  workman,  however,  would  touch  it,  so  the  Consul 
S.  yEmilius  Paulus  threw  off  his  toga  pnetexta,  and  seizing  an  axe,  himself 
struck  the  doors  of  the  temple,  the  common  people  not  daring  to  profane  a 
building  they  believed  to  be  sacred.     It  was  not  until  the  dictatorship  of 
Sylla  that  the  cult  of  Isis  was  officially  recognised  in  Rome.     In  Campania, 
on   the  other  hand,  altars  were  raised    to    Isis  long  before    this   period; 
for  the  Grceco- Egyptian  influences,  which  had  gained  ground  at  the  time 
of  the  Ptolemies,  had  left  a  deep  and  enduring  mark  on  Pompei,  where 
the  dominant  art  was  the  art  of  Alexandria.     It  is  not,  therefore,  surprising 
to  find  that  a  fresh  impetus  was  given  to  the  cult  of  Alexandrian  divinities 
when  the  soldiers  of  Caisar  returned  fresh  from  the  fascination  of  Egypt. 

The  people  of  Pompei  discovered  that  in  one  essential  point  Isis  had 
an  analogy  with  their  own  patron  goddess.      In  Venus  they  worshipped 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES    AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS  73 

the  universal  feminine  principle  of  fecundity,  and  we  find  the  same  idea 
expressed  in  the  cult  of  Isis,  who  represents  the  feminine  quality  in 
nature — "  L'^pouse  qui  re^oit  le  germe  productif,"  according  to  Lafaye.* 
On  one  of  the  pilasters  of  the  tnegarum  of  the  Isium  at  Pompei,  amongst 
other  Isiac  and  Alexandrian  symbols,  a  germ  seems  to  be  represented  in 
the   female   organ,    the    whole  surrounded  by  ears  of  corn  (a  symbol  of 


*>t: 


The  Temple  of  Isis 

fertility),  the  use  of  which  was  taught  to  men  by  Isis  to  turn  them  from 
cannibalism. 

The  worship  of  Isis,  however,  was  less  materialistic  than  the  cult  of 
Venus;  it  was  even,  indeed,  the  poetic  and  mystic  expression  of  Love. 
It  was  a  religion  of  mystery,  and  drew  a  veil  over  those  secrets  of 
Nature  it  venerated.  The  happiness  given  to  the  initiated  by  the 
influence  of  a  subtilised  love,  and  the  peculiar  tact  of  this  form  of 
worship,    the   materialism   of    which    was    skilfully    concealed    from    the 

'■•'  Lafaye,  Histoire  des  Cultes  d'Alexandrie. 

K 


74 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


'^/ 


uninitiated,  made  the  religion  of  Isis  the  chosen  cult  of  pagan-minds  in  love 
v.^     with   the   ideal    and    dissatisfied   with    the   grossness   of 
Wi'i^  ,^>f^ ^ll)    Graico- Roman  pantheism. 

The  fundamental  theogonic  idea  of  its  doctrine  also 
attracted  men  by  its  monotheistic  simplicity,  synthesising 
in  the  person  of  Isis  all  the  force  and  beauty  of  Nature. 
Isis  was  a  woman,  great  and  beautiful ;  the  mother  of  all, 
kind  and  pitiful ;  the  personification  of  mercy  ;*  the  giver 
of  happiness  on  earth  and  a  serene  life  after  death ;  the 
spiritual  sister;  the  guardian  genius  of  the  soul,  loving 
and  helpful ;  the  wife  who  consoles,  the  sincere  lover 
offering  celestial  joys.  She  is  Providence,  the  "Good 
Mother,"  the  Bo»a  Dea.  The  finer  spirits  accepted  this 
worship  readily,  in  a  somewhat  dilettante  spirit,  for  its 
secret  charm  and  its  idealisation  of  gross  practices 
promised  new  sensations,  very  congenial  to  fastidious 
minds. 

The  cult  of  Isis  was  handed  on  from  father  to  son, 
from  mother  to  daughter.  "It  is  in  Isis  men  believe, 
when  they  believe  in  God,"  writes  Juvenal.t  She  was 
the  second  person  of  the  Egyptian  triad,  Serapis-Osiris, 
Isis,  Horus-Harpocrates.  The  ideals  of  the  religion  of 
Isis  were  high,  and  its  tendencies  pure  and  moral,  in  spite 
.,^  of  its  timid  and  carefully  veiled   sensuality.      It   had  a 

Stuccoes  in  the  Megarum  Certain  salutary  influence  on  the  ancients,  restraining  them 

(Isiac  and  Alexandrian  \  c  \  c  r   •  •  » 

Attributes*)  somewhat  from  the  grossest  forms  of  impurity,  and  even 

ordering  them  to  purify  themselves  for  the  new  birth  of  the  soul,  and  thus 

*  Lafaye,  Hisloire  des  Cultes  d'AUxandrU.  t  Juvenal  III. 

X  (i)  The  Eagle  of  the  Ptolemies  (?).  (2)  The  Cranium  of  an  Ox.  (j)  An  Uraus  surrounded 
by  Rays  of  Light.  (4)  The  Goose  sacred  to  Isis.  (5)  A  Pigmy  Gladiator.  (6)  Osiris  bearded  (?), 
and  wearing  a  V^ulture's  Head,  the  hieroglyph  of  which  signifies /a//i<r.  (7)  The  Female  Organ  and 
a  Germ  surrounded  by  ears  of  com,  an  emblem  of  fertility.  (8)  The  Sacred  Vase.  (9)  The  Sistrum. 
The  details  of  the  stuccoes  are  very  much  defaced  (especially  in  Nos.  i  and  6). 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE  VARIOUS   CULTS 


75 


prepare  it  for  the  ideal  love  that  heals.  The  object  of 
this  religion  was  the  knowledge  of  God,  which,  says 
Plutarch,  is  "the  first  and  chiefest  of  our  duties,"  and 
duties  to  men  were  not  forgotten.  In  the  BooJk  of  the 
Dead,*  the  departed  spirit  says  to  his  judges  :  "  I  have 
practised  justice  on  earth,  I  have  not  persecuted  the 
unfortunate,  I  have  not  caused  the  slave  to  be  ill- 
treated,  I  have  not  made  men  weep,  I  have  not  slain ; " 
and  then  he  adds:  "  I  have  given  bread  to  the  hungry, 
and  water  to  the  thirsty."     This  is  charity,  a  sentiment 

little  in  accordance  with  the  spirit 

of  Paganism,  but  the  religion  of  Isis 

worked  a  change  in  human  senti- 
ment  and    touched    the    chords   of 

natural  generous  feeling.     The  god 

Serapis,  on  the  other  hand,  inspired 

fear;    but   it  was   a  salutary  fear,  ^j^^ie  statue  of  venus  from 

^1  ...  ,     -.  the  Temple  of  Isis  (Naples 

for  he  maintained  peace,  and  for-  Museum) 
bade  men  to  injure  one  another.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  these  lofty  theories  were  not  always 
reduced  to  practice,  especially  by  worshippers  of  the 
Isis  of  Pompei,  who  had  something  of  an  Egypto- 
Grecian  or  Ale.xandrian  character ;  for  the  goddess, 
according  to  Juvenal's  irreverent  description  of  her, 
was  lena,  a  very  complaisant  divinity !  t 

The  worship  of  Isis,  the  mother  of  Nature,  or 
the  personification  of  Nature  itself,  was  closely  allied 
'(fr"?  to  the  cult  of  Venus,  with  whom  was  associated  the  god 
(^N^'pii'Mus^ln)^  Bacchus,  who   corresponds   to   the    Egyptian   Osiris. 

Both    Bacchus   and    Venus   had   their   statues   in   the   Temple   of  Isis,  a 

•  Lafaye,  op.  cit.  p.  93.  f  Juvenal  VI. 


I 


76 


POMPKI:   THK   CUT,    ITS    LIFE  AND   ART 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


77 


« 


promiscuity  ill  calculated  to  give  an  austere  character  to  Egyptian  worship 
at  Pompei.     In  the  house  of  Julia  Felix,  however,  which  was  inhabited  by  a 

devotee  of  I  sis,  there  is  a  painting  repre- 
senting Isis,  Anubis,  Osiris,  and  Horus  in  a 
sacellum,  a  niche  in  which  was  occupied  by 
a  fine  tripod  of  Alexandrian  work,  in  bronze, 
supported  by  three  ichthyphallic  fauns  stand- 
ing back  to  back.  The  warning  gesturq  gf" 
their  outstretched  hands  suggests  that  the 
mystery  was  not  to  be  consummated  by 
every  one.* 

The  ritual  of 
the  cult  of  Isis  was 
not  everywhere 
the  same ;  even 
the  doctrine  and 

Bronie  Tnpod  of  Julia  Felix  (Secret  Museum     Jj_     cynibols    Varied 
of  Naples)  ^ 

in  consequence  of  local  identifications  of  Isis  with 
other  divinities. 

In  Apuleius  and  Plutarch,  who  were  con- 
temporaries and  flourished  not  long  after  the 
destruction  of  Pompei  and  Herculaneum,  we  find 
detailed  accounts  of  the  religious  and  sacerdotal 
features  of  the  Egyptian  cult.  Many  of  the  priests 
and  priestesses  of  Isis  lived  in  seclusion, t  and 
formed  colleges,  the  head  of  which  was  known 
as  the  father ;  {  but  ihtpastopkori  (secular  priests) 

Marble  Statue   of   Bacchus  from   the 
*  It  is  noteworthy  that  ancient  Egyptian  paintings  represent       Temple  of  Isis  (Naples  Museum) 

an  ichthyphallic  person  in  the  celebration  of  several  religious  ceremonies.     Among  the  Romans 

also  the  Vestal  Virgins  worshipped  the  god  of  Lampsacus  and  consecrated  their  virginity  to  him. 

I  The  pastophoii  probably  came  from  Eg>'pt,  for  in  some  pictures  relating  to  the  cult  of  Isis 
the  priest  has  a  darker  complexion  than  the  Other  persons. 

J  Lafaye,  0/.  cit. 


also  lived  near  the  temples  at  the /^.y/(?/^<7r/a  (the  "presbytery"),  in  order 

to  be  always  ready  to  perforin  their  duties. 
They    often    led    a    life    of    extreme 

asceticism,*  being  vowed  to  chastity  and  to 

abstention  from  various  sorts  of  food.     They 

might  not  eat  meat,  nor  use  salt ;  wine  was 

forbidden,  and  all  food  that  had  once  been 

living.      They  agreed  never  to  block  up  a 

spring   of    water   or   to    destroy   any   fruit-  '""" '^^ ::;Tsis(\>;Sut^^^^^^^ 

tree ;  they  were  not  even  allowed  to  use  wool  for 
clothing,  as  it  was  taken  from  a  living  creature.  These 
priests,  in  fact,  constituted  themselves  the  protectors  of 
Nature,  watching  over  it  with  jealous  care  and  protesting 
against  any  violation  of  its  harmony. 

There  were   several   orders   among  the   priests   of 
Isis  :  the  Hierophori  and  the   Hierostoli,   whose  dark- 

":hTTl'::5co;tisX°S  ^^^^^    P^^^^V    ^-^^es,    relieved    by    bright    ornaments, 
"^"'*  symbolised   the   sacred   mysteries   and   the   less   occult 

doctrines.  They  wore  linen  vestments  with 
fringed  borders,  and  had  their  heads  shaven  ; 
but  there  was  an  order  of  incense-bearers  and 
acolytes  who  wore  their  beards  and  hair 
unshorn,  as  represented  in  a  picture  in  the 
Naples  Museum.! 

The  Egryptian  religion  was  an  encroaching 
faith,  and  the  Roman  poets  speak  disparagingly 

-  .  _,,  .  r  I    •  Priests  of  Isis,  Painting  from  the  Temple  of 

ot  It.      1  he  priests  of  Isis,  according  to  them,  isis  (Naples  Museum) 

were  often  mere  mendicants,  who  for  small  sums  read  the  stars  and  exploited 

*  Instances  of  this  are  to  be  found  in  various  oriental  cults ;  that  of  Cybele  in  particular  might 
be  quoted. 

t  See  the  Salle  d'Isis  in  the  Mus6e  Guimet,  Paris. 


/^-\ 


1 


78 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


79 


i 


I 


public  curiosity.  Each  new  initiation,  and  every  stage  in  it,  was  made  the 
excuse  for  fresh  calls  upon  the  purse  of  the  neophyte,  who  was  tricked  by 
clever  scenic  effects  into  the  apparent  witnessing  of  fantastic  miracles,  such 
as   seeing   the  sun   at   midnight.*     The  divinity  also  revealed  herself  in 


The  Cult  of  Isis.    Sprinkling  Holy  Water.     A  Painting  from  Herculaneum  (Naples  Museum) 

intimate  and  close  communion,  leaving  the  initiated  person  in  a  mystic 
ecstasy,  in  which  he  saw  "  things  unspeakable,"  and  dedicated  his  life  to 
the  goddess  of  his  worship.     Isis  was  honoured  in  various  solemnities,  and 


The  Feast  of  the  Ship  of  Isis.     Painting  from  the  Isium  (Naples  Museum) 

the    birth,    the     passion,    the    death    and    resurrection    of    Osiris    were 
celebrated. 

Some  pictures  in  the  Naples  Museum  represent  certain  ceremonies 
of  the  religion  of  Isis.  One  of  the  most  curious  of  these  was  the  Feast  of 
the  Ship  of  Isis,  which  took  place  on   March  1 5,  and  was  very  popular  on 

*  Apuleius. 


the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  There  was  a  procession  from  the  Isium 
to  the  seashore,  where  all  the  ships  that  had  been  stranded  and  afterwards 
brought  ashore  during  the  past  year  were  solemnly  launched  on  the  sea 
again.  A  new  ship 
was  also  sent  to  sea 
on  the  same  day,  as  a 
sign  that  the  secison 
of  navigation  had 
begun  again.  Certain 
paintings  in  the  Tem- 
ple   of     Isis    represent  ^  ^^^^  of  isis,  a  cutter.     Painting  from  the  Isium  (Naples  Museum) 

ships  thus  offered  to  the  goddess,  whose  name  they  bore. 

The  ritual  of  the  cult  also  included  dances,  and  there  is  a  painting  of  a 

bearded  man,  his  head  crowned  with  leaves  and  the  lotus-flower,  symbol  of 

the  resurrection,  probably  executing 
one  of  the  steps  in  the  Passion 
of  Osiris.  It  has  a  certain  resem- 
blance to  the  danse  du  ventre^  in 
which  we  may,  no  doubt,  recognise 
the  pantomime  of  some  religious 
poem.  Another  painting  repre- 
sents a  ceremony  where  the  high 
priest,  with  shaven  head  and  wear- 
ing a  linen  vestment,  raises  before 
the  assembled  worshippers  a  vase 

Ceremony  of  the  Cult  of  Isis.     The  Sacred  Dance.     Painting 

from  Herculaneum  (Naples  Museum)  Containing    the  SaCred  WatCr  of  the 

Nile,  symbol  of  the  productive  forces  of  Nature,  under  the  figure  of  the 
Nile  that  fertilises  Egypt.  An  altar,  on  which  perfumes  and  offerings 
are  burning,  stands  at  the  foot  of  the  temple  steps,  and  a  priest  fans 
the  sacred  fire,  while  musicians  play  the  flute  and  the  spectators  shake  the 
sistrum. 


I 


8o 


POMPEI  :   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND    ART 


I 


Ceremonies  such  as  these  must  have  been  held  in  the  Isium  at  Pompei, 
which  was  destroyed  by  the  earthquake  of  the  year  63,  but  rebuilt  at  the 

expense  of  Nonnius  Popidius 
Celsinus,  as  is  recorded  by 
an  inscription  over  the  lateral 
door  opening  on  the  street. 
In  return,  the  Decurions 
elected  Popidius  to  their  order 
free  of  charge.  The  sanctuary 
^  itself  stands  af)art  on  a /<7<//«»i 
approached  by  eight  steps, 
and  preceded  by  a  peristyle 
consisting  of  four  front  and 
two    side  columns.      The 

A  Ceremony  of  the  Cult  of  Isis.    The  Adoration  of  the  S-icred  Water. 

A  Painting  from  Herculaneum  (Naples  Museum)  farther     end     of     tllC     fc/Za     IS 

occupied  by  a  large  vaulted  pedestal,  pierced  by 
two  lights  opening  into  a  subterranean  passage, 
which  was  reached  by  a  staircase  outside.*  The 
priest  probably  hid  himself  in  this  secret  passage 
to  speak  the  oracles  to  the  devout  who  came  in 
crowds  to  worship  the  great  goddess.  The  statue 
of  Isis  was  acrolithic:  that  is,  the  head,  hands,  and 
feet  were  of  marble,  the  body  of  wood ;  she  was 
dressed  in  linen  robes  ;  in  her  right  hand  she  held 
the  sistrum,  and  in  her  left  the  Nilometer.  In 
the  western  ambulacrum  there  was  another  statue 
of  the  goddess,  of  coloured  and  gilded  marble, 
presented  by  Ca;cilius  Phoebus,  and  not  far  from  it    | 

was  the  head  of  a  devout    worshipper    of    Isis,    the    j,,H«nu, Sorex.  an  Actor  (a  Bron«  in 
^^      .  T      1  t-  *he  Naples  Museum) 

actor  C  JNorbanus  borex. 

*  Fiorelli,  Descriziont  di  Pompei. 


/ 


I 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


81 


Qji  either  side  of  the  entrance — a  door  in  the  wall  of  the  pertdo/us— there 
were  two  fonts  for  lustral  water,  and  a  marble  pedestal,  which,  according  to 
Fiorelli,  was  used  as  a  stand  for  the  alms-box.  The  sacred  precinct  where 
the  worshippers  stood  is  enclosed  by  a  portico,  and  in  the  intercolumniations 
were  several  altars,  on  which  stood  statues  of  Bacchus  and  Venus.  Behind 
the  sanctuary  is  a  large  hall, 
the  Schola,  which  may  have 
been  used  as  a  meeting-place 
for  the  regular  worshippers  of 
Isis,  and  a  hall  where  the 
followers  of  the  goddess  were 
addressed  and  exhorted  The 
ears  of  stucco  on  the  walls 
seem  to  symbolise  the  hearing 
of  prayers  by  the  goddess.  A 
sistrum  with  ^  cat's  head  and 
a  marble  monopodiutn  were 
found  here,  and  there  are  two  large  paintings  on  the  walls.  One  of 
these  represents  lo  delivered  from  Argus  by  Mercury  ;  and  the  other,  lo 
borne  on  the  shoulders  of  Nilus,  landing  in  Egypt,  and  welcomed  by  Isis, 
who  holds  in  her  hand  the  urcpus,  or  sacred  serpent,  while  her  attendants 
shake  the  sistrum.  In  the  right-hand  corner  a  figure  of  Harpocrates 
symbolises  mystic  silence. 

The  Sacrarium  was  the  place  where  the  treasures  given  to  the  goddess 
by  the  initiated  were  kept.  Its  walls  are  covered  with  paintings  repre- 
senting Bacchus,  Narcissus,  Chiron  teaching  Achilles,  Paris  and  a  River- 
god  (the  Sarnus  ?).  There  is  also  a  painting  resembling  those  of  the 
iararia,  where  Isis,  surrounded  by  serpents  (agatho-daemons),  is  seated  on 
a  throne ;  by  her  side  is  Osiris,  bearded,  and  dressed  in  a  long  tunic,  his 
head  crowned  with  a  nimbus  and  the  lotus-flower,  a  sceptre  in  his  hand,  and 
a  human  head  between  his  feet.     Typhon  is  seated,  naked,  in  a  hieratic 


Marble  Font  for  Lustral  ^^'ater  from  the  Temple  of  Isis 
(Naples  Museum) 


n 


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POMPEI:    THE  CITY,   ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


THE   TOMBS,    THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


83 


: 


i 


attitude,  with  his  hands  on  his  kntjcs.  Between  two  enormous  heads,  five 
times  the  natural  size,  bearded,  and  wearing  the  lotus-rtower(Flutus-Serapis), 
an  Egyptian  woman  is  represented  on  board  a  vessel,  towing  another  ship 
on  which  is  a  caged  bird.     In  this  sacrarium  a  statue  of  a  bearded  god  was 

discovered,  who  is 
supposed  to  be 
Priapus,  and  in  a 
niche  there  was  an 
Egyptian  divinity 
of  greenish  porce- 
lain, seated,  and 
wearing  the  klaft 
on  her  head,  her 
body  covered  with 
hieroglyphics. 
Some  sphinxes, 
wearing  the  lotus- 
flower,*  were  also 
discovered. 

The   initia- 
tions,    no    doubt, 

lo  landing  in  Egypt.     A  Painting  from  the  Isium  (Naples  Museunn)  tOOlc    olace    in    an 

isolated  chapel,  the  megarum,  situated  in  the  peribolus,  on  the  left-hand 
side,  in  the  front  part  of  the  temple.  It  had  a  subterranean  chamber 
decorated  with  pictures  relating  to  the  cult  of  Isis,  and  containing  a 
divan,  on  which  the  neophyte  spent  the  night  in  expectation  of  the  vision 
of  Isis  and  the  mystic  consolations  of  her  presence.  The  outside  walls 
of   the   m€garum\  are   covered   with    symbolical   subjects   in   stucco,  and 

"•'  See  Lafaye,  o/>.  c'li. 

\  There  has  been  some  discussion  about  the  name  to  be  given  to  this  small  isolated  chapel. 
Some  see  in  it  a  piscina  connected  with  a  leaden  pipe.  In  this  case  the  place  would  have  been 
used  as  a  ^urgatorium. 


Megarum  of  the  Temple  of  Isis 

on  two  of  them  there  are  decorative  groups,  one   representing  Mars  and 

Venus  embracing  between  two  _  _ 

Cupids,  and  the  other,  Mercury         ^^^.^^^^S^M^:;'. 

seizing    Proserpina,  or   the 

nymph    Lara,  also  flanked  by 

two    Cupids.       Opposite    this 

small  building  stands  an  altar, 

where  offerings  were  consumed 

during  the  sacrifice,  the  ashes 

being  thrown  into  a  trench  on 

one  side. 

Many  objects  were  found 
in  the  temple,  amongst  others 
a  bronze  tripod  supported  by 
sphinxes  and  a  small  portable 

altar.    I  n  the  ScAo/a,  two  bronze  i„,erior  of  the  Megamm.  Temple  of  Isis  (after  Cooke) 


84 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


candelabra   were   discovered,  and  two  wooden  coffers   containing   various 
objects — two  bronze  candlesticks,  a  little  gold  cup,  and  a  silver  crescent. 

On  the  three  faces  of  one  of  the 
pillars  of  the  peristyle,  near  the  mega- 
rnm,  there  were  three  hieroglyphic  stones 
showing  traces  of  black,  green,  and  red 
colouring,  but  they  are  of  no  special 
interest. 

A  funeral  stela  of  alabastrian  stone 
was  also  discovered,  on  the  upper  part 
of  which  are  fourteen  figures  of  Egyptian 
divinities,  two  of  whom  have  human 
faces  and  worship  Osiris,  who  is  repre- 
sented here  with  his  demiurgic  attributes. 
On  the  lower  part  of  the  sieia  is  a 
hieroglyphic  inscription  of  twenty  lines, 
which  Champollion  translates  as  follows  : 
•'This  is  a  public  commemoration  of  the 
priests  of  Horus,  and  the  other  divinities  of  the  lower  world,  He  who  tempers 
the  light,  the  torch  that  illumines  the  world,  August  and  Gracious."* 


Bronze  Isiac  Tripod  (Naples  Museum) 


Silver  Vase  used  in  the  CuU  of  Isis,  and  details  of  the  Vase  (after  De  Clarac) 

Among  the  many  objects  relating  to  the  worship  of  Isis  that  have  been 
collected  at  Pompei,  there  is  a  curious  vase  of  which  De  Clarac  made  a 


<=  Domenico  Monaco,  Guide  du  Muiie  de  Naples. 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


85 


special  study.*     It  is  of  engraved  silver,  and  was  found  in  the  Triangular 

Forum,   beside  a  skeleton.     The  oval  shape  of  the  vase  recurs  in  many 

paintings  relating  to  the  Egyptian  religion,  and  suggests  the  drop  of  water, 

or  the  egg,  to  which  a  mystic  meaning  was  attached.     The  upper  portion 

of  the  vase  ends  in  a  crescent,  an  attribute  of  Isis  as  the  moon,  which  was 

supposed  to  have  a  great  influence  on  the  overflowing  of  the  Nile,   the 

source  of  the  wealth  of  Egypt.     Apuleius  also 

speaks  of  a  vase   in   the   shape   of  a   breast, 

from  which  milk  fell    in    drops — a   symbol    of 

Isis,  the  Mother  of  Nature,  nourishing  those 

she  had  borne.      But,  as  De  Clarac  observes, 

this  vase   is   not  pierced,  and  consequently  it 

could  only  have  been  an  imitation  of  the  vase 

of    Apuleius,    perhaps    used    to    contain    the 

sacred  water  that  symbolised  the  Nile. 

Amongst  the  details  of  ornament  is  Isis 
wearing  on  her  head  the  Numidian  hen,  a 
species  of  vulture  peculiar  to  Egypt ;  its  hiero- 
glyphic meaning  is  "mother."      She  holds  in 

her       hand      a      crocodile,      the      emblem      of     the  Brome  Sistrum  (Naples  Museum) 

Nile ;  the  serpent  by  her  is  the  uraus,  the  symbol  of  divine  power,  and 
the  ram  represents  Amnion,  who  is  identical  with  the  Greek  Zeus. 
The  second  female  figure  is  Isis,  or  the  priestess  of  Isis,  often  represented 
with  the  same  attributes  as  the  goddess.  On  her  head  she  wears  the 
lotus-flower,  the  symbol  of  the  resurrection  ;  she  holds  the  vase  of  sacred 
water  and  the  sis/rum,  an  Egyptian  religious  instrument,  the  round  part 
of  which  represented  the  world,  according  to  Plutarch,  and  the  four  rods 
the  four  elements.  The  sistrum,  when  shaken,  was  a  symbol  of  the  eternal 
movement  of  nature. 


*  Excavations  at  Pompei,  March  18,   1813.     Articles  published  in  the  Journal  Franqais  of 
Naples,  April  4,  5,  6,  7,  1813,  and  also  in  8"",  93  pages,  with  15  plates. 


i 


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POMPEI:    THE   CITY,  ITS    LIFE    AND   ART 


On  the  next  altar  sits  Anubis,  the  dog-headed  (cynocephalous)  monkey, 
to  whom  the  Egyptians  attributed  certain  qualities  that  placed  him  among 
the  sacred  animals.  According  to  the  hieroglyphic  legend,  he  was  the  son 
of  Osiris  and  I  sis,  and  later  explanations  of  his  functions  declared  that  he 
represented  time  and  universal  reason.  As  Anubis  is  identified  with 
Hermanubis,  the  Egyptian  Mercury,  it  is  probable  that  the  object  he 
is  holding  is  the  caduceus. 

Apuleius  gives  a  full  and  minute  description  of  the  final  stage  in  an 
Isiac  initiation.  We  will  note  only  the  most  characteristic  details.  Lucius 
(who  is  to  be  initiated)  came  forward  after  a  period  of  purification  by  fasting 
and  ablutions,  wearing  twelve  sacerdotal  robes,  and  covered  by  a  linen 
vestment  painted  with  flowers;  a  magnificent  chiamys  hung  from  his 
shoulders  to  the  ground.  His  robes  were  embroidered  on  every  side  with 
animals  of  various  colours,  Indian  dragons,  hyperborean  griffins,  and 
imaginary  four-footed  beasts  with  birdlike  wings.  This  vestment  was 
called  by  the  priests  the  Olympiac  stole.  Finally,  Lucius,  rigid  as  a  statue 
and  magnificent  as  the  sun,  holding  a  lighted  torch  and  crowned  with  laurel, 
the  leaves  of  which  formed  a  halo  as  of  rays  round  his  head,  was  shown  to 
the  expectant  crowd. 

After  the  ceremony,  Lucius  celebrated  the  day  of  his  new  birth  by  a 
delicate  repast  and  joyful  feasting.  The  same  ceremony,  with  the 
ceremonial  feast,  was  repeated  for  three  days;  he  finally  addressed  a 
fervent  prayer  to  Isis,  in  which  he  attributes  to  the  goddess  the  combined 
powers  of  all  the  other  divinities.  The  monotonous  and  cadenced  sound  of 
sistra  and  cymbals,  accompanied  by  enervating  and  languorous  chants 
akin  to  certain  oriental  rhythms  of  the  present  day,  must  have  had  a  strong 
influence  on  a  mind  filled  with  suggestions  of  the  supernatural,  giving  rise 
to  certain  phenomena  of  the  hypnotic  state  in  which  the  personality  seems 
to  lose  itself  in  Nature  and  become  absorbed  by  her. 

Women  were  naturally  ready  converts  to  the  cult  of  Isis,  their 
impressionable  temperament  making  them  peculiariy  liable  to  its  influence. 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES    AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


87 


According  to  Ovid,  women  went  to  find  lovers  at  the  theatre,  or,  more 
often,  at  the  temples  of  the  Egyptian  goddess  ;  and  the  presents  they  gave 
her  were  of  great  value,  as  is  proved  by  an  inscription*  where  we  read  that 
a  Spanish  woman  dedicated  a  silver  statue  to  Isis  in  honour  of  her  little 
daughter.      Besides   the   diamonds   on   the   statue,    there   was   a  diadem 

consisting  of  one  large  pearl  and  six  small        Ml^rJ^Mif^NIT^3•3•i^1^0l?^f3R•J 
ones  ;  emeralds,  rubies,  and  jacinths;  ear-    NWTilOTfRMnHRrMtVTFWMaaai 

drops  and  pendants  of  pearls;  a  necklace    ^f>MVraVT^nn3)|-awUI)ll»1H]  3 
consisting  of  thirty-six  pearls  and  eighteen      M38IMV)I)IN)13WV8M0T-^MRHR 
emeralds,  with  two  for  the  clasps ;  bracelets  fl3TTR8VCPM1V/|UI-/l3>I3>l 

and  anklets;  rings  for  every  finger  ;  t  oscan  inscription  in  the  Temple  of  isis 
finally,  eight  rough  emeralds  set  in  the  sandals.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
women  deserted  their  lovers  for  the  mysteries  of  the  goddess,  and  were 
never  weary  of  the  charm  of  this  particular  religion.  Tibullus+  bitterly 
upbraids  Delia :  "  What  is  thy  Isis  to  me  now }  What  is  it  to  me  that 
thy  hand  has  so  often  shaken  the  sistrum  ?  "  But  when  Tibullus  fell  sick 
he  also  invoked  the  goddess  and  prayed  to  her  in  his  turn.  "  Come  to  my 
succour  "  (he  writes),  "  for  thou  canst  heal  me  !  The  many  pictures  hun^ 
in  thy  temple  are  a  proof  of  it !  Delia,  in  pursuance  of  her  vow,  will  sit 
robed  in  linen  before  thy  sacred  door,  and  twice  a  day,  with  hair  unbound, 
she  will  sing  thy  praises,  drawing  all  men's  eyes  in  the  midst  of  the 
multitude  of  thy  worshippers."  The  Corinna  of  Ovid  also,  when  in  danger 
of  death,  invoked  the  goddess  and  was  saved.  As  to  Propertius,§  he 
expresses  his  resentment  against  the  religion  of  his  mistress :  "  It  is  now 
the  time  of  the  gloomy  ceremonies  of  Isis,  and  Cynthia  has  already  given 
up  ten  nights  to  her.     Ah,  perish  the  daughter  of  Inachus  ! " 


■--•  Corp.  insc.  lat.  II.  3,  386. 

t  See  Boissier,  La  Religion  romaitu.    The  statue  of  the  Madonna  di  Sant'  Agostino  at  Rome 
is  covered  with  similar  decorations. 
J  Tib.  I.  iii. 
§  Prop.  II.  xxxiii. 
II  lo,  who  was  confused  with  Isis. 


A 


lI 


Il 


I 

fii 


VI 


THE  TEMPLE  OF  FORTUNA  AUGUSTA— THE  FOUNTAIN  OF  MERCURY 

AGR/ECO-ROMAN  divinity,  Fortune  (Fortuna  or  Tyche),  who  had 
some  analogy  with  the  Egyptian  goddess,  came  under  the  influence 
of  the  cult  of  I  sis  and  acquired  many  of  her  attributes.  Thus,  while 
retaining  her  own  characteristic  emblems,  the  rudder 
and  the  cornucopia,  Fortuna  was  further  endowed 
v/ith  a  head  dress  in  which  the  lotus-flower,  the 
crescent,  the  urceus,  the  modius,  and  the  sistrum 
form  a  fantastic  diadem.  This  was  the  origin  of 
Isityche,  several  statuettes  of  whom  have  been 
discovered  at  Pompei.  Under  the  Roman  Empire, 
Fortuna  bore  the  official  name  of  Fortuna  Augusta, 
and  a  temple  was  built  to  her  at  Pompei.  This 
monument  was  due  to  the  munificence  of  a  Roman 
— a  certain  Tullius — who  may  have  been  of  the 
same  family  as  Cicero. 

The  building  is  small,  but  richly  decorated 
with  white  marble.  The  base  is  divided  by  a 
stair-head,  on  which  stands  the  altar  of  sacrifice, 
placed  on  the  thymeU*  Some  fragments  of 
an  iron  gate  that  closed  the  entrance  to  the 
temple    are    still    in   existence.      The   pronaos    had    only   four    columns 

Exterior  platform  of  a  temple,  on  which  an  altar  was  placed. 


Bronxe  Sutuette  of  Isityche 
(Naples  Museum) 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES    AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


89 


supporting     the      architrave,      on     which     is      inscribed     the     following 
dedication  : 

M  •  TVLLIVS   MFDVI-D-  TER  •  QVINQ  •  AVGVR  •  TR  •  MIL  • 
A  •  POP  •  AEDEM   FORTVN^  AVGVST  •  SOLO   ET   PEQ  •  SVA 

Ijt. — •'  Marcus  Tullius,  the  son  of  Marcus,  duumvir  and  judge  for  the  third  time,  quinquen- 
nalis,  augur,  and  military  tribune  elected  by  the  people,  erected  on  his  ground  and  at  his  own 
expense  the  Temple  of  Fortuna  Augusta." 


Temple  of  Fortuna  Augusta 

Another  inscription  informs  us  that  the  slaves  of  Vettius,  of  Caesia  Prima, 
of  Numitor  and  of  Lucutulantus  were  the  first  ministers  of  Fortuna  Augusta. 
Besides  the  statue  of  the  goddess,  there  was  a  statue  of  Tullius  and  his 
wife  in  the  temple.  Fortuna  Augusta  was  specially  invoked  during  the 
Emperor's  journeys  to  ensure  his  safe  return,  but  mortals  were  also 
entitled  to  her  favours.  Fortune,  however,  was  not  always  a  beneficent 
power.  Palladas,  an  Alexandrian,  tells  us  that :  "  She  knows  neither  law 
nor  reason — the  cruel  despot  of  men,  sweeping  all  things  to  destruction 
in  her  wilful  course.     She  inclines  toward  the  evil  man  and  hates  the  good, 

M 


0 


90 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


I 


as  if  to  show  her  blind  and  cruel  power.  By  what  contrivance  may  1 
master  Fortune  "  (he  writes) :  "  Fortune,  who  lies  in  wait  for  us  in  her 
secret  place,  and  takes  us  unawares  with  all  the  wiles  of  a  courtesan."* 

Though  she  was  much  invoked,  Fortune  inspired  no  great  confidence, 
and  her  dispensations  were  feared  rather  than  desired.  Mercury,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  divine  provider,  the  zealous  dispenser  of  her  favours,  must 
have  had  many  devotees  in  a  trading  city  like  Pompei."t 

Mercury,  however,  has  no  temple  at  Pompei,  for  the  temple  supposed 
to  be  his  has  been  proved  to  be  that  of  Vespasian  ;  but  there  is  a  fountain 
named  after  him,  in  the  Street  of  Mercury,  not  far  from  the  Forum. 

*  Anth.  grace. 

+  In  a  Poinpeian  painting  Fortune  is  represented  sending  Mercury,  bearing  a  heavy  purse,  to 
Uaverse  the  world.    This  subject  is  several  times  repeated  on  the  walls  of  the  city. 


VII 


THE   TEMPLE   OF  JUPITER   MEILICHIOS-THE  TEMPLE  OF  VESPASIAN^ 

THE  ALTAR  OF  SACRIFICE 

IN  addition  to  these  special  cults,  there  was  one  form  of  worship  general 
to  the  whole  community,  which  no  good  Reman 
could  neglect      This  was  the  worship  of  the 
three  great   Capitoline  deities,  Jupiter,   Juno,  and 
Minerva.     The  shrine  of  the  triad  was  at  the  back 
of  the  Temple  of  I  sis  in  Pompei,  in  a  small  temple 
which  used  to  be  known  as  the  Temple  of  ^scula- 
pius,  from  the  numerous  terra-cotta  votive-ofiferino-s 
models  of  hands,  feet,  breasts,  uteri,  and  so  on,  dis- 
covered there.     Some  god  of  healing  was  certainly 
worshipped  in  this  sanctuary,  for  a  bust  of  Minerva 
Medica  was  found  there,  beside  the  statues  of  Jupiter 
and  Juno,  who  were  mistaken  for  y^sculapius  and 
Hygeia.     It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  Jupiter 
worshipped   here   in  the  last  days  of  Pompei  was 
Jupiter-Serapis,  to  whom  the  Romans  attributed  the 
power  of  healing  sickness. 

After  the  year  63,  we  find  that  the   Romans 
took  advantage  of  the  destruction   of  the   temples 
in  the  first  earthquake  to   introduce  various  changes  into  the  old  cults 
at    Pompei.      Thus,    the   Temple   of  y^sculapius,   as   it   was   called,  was 


Terra-cotta  Statue  of  Jupiter 
(Naples  Museum) 


I 


9» 


POMPEI:    THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND    ART 


THE   TOMBS,   THE  TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS    CULTS 


93 


F 


: 


;» 


originally  dedicated,  according  to  an  Oscan  inscription,  to  Jupiter  Meilichios, 
the  god  who  delights  in  sacrifices.  The  temple  itself,  which  is  the  smallest 
in  Pompei,  is  approached  by  a  portico,  the  roof  of  which  was  originally 
supported  by  two  columns.  The  small  room  adjoining  the  temple  was 
used  to  store  the  objects  connected  with  the  cult,  or  perhaps  to  lodge  the 

sick  who  came  there  to  implore  healing.  In  the  area 
stands  an  archaic  altar  decorated  with  triglyphs  ;  nine 
steps  lead  to  the  ce//a,  before  which  stands  a  pronaos 
with  four  frontal  columns. 

In  addition  to  the  votive  offerings  of  terra-cotta 
found  here,  there  must  have  been  other  proofs  of  the 
gratitude  of  the  people  to  the  god  of  healing.     Votive 
pictures  of  the  accident  or  danger  escaped  were  also 
offered  to  the  god.     An  idea  of  what  such  pictures 
were  may  be  gathered  from  a  visit  to  the  church  of 
Sant*  Agostino  at  Rome,  where  there  is  a  permanent 
exhibition  of  the  most  picturesque  of  such  offerings. 
Three  other  religious   buildings    remain   to   be 
examined :  the  Temple  of  Vespasian  (or  the  Temple 
of  Mercury,  as  it  used  to  be  called),  the  Temple  of 
^    Jupiter,  and  the  sacellum  of  Augustus,  or  Augusteum. 
The  Temple  of  Vespasian,  as  it  is  pronounced 
to    be   by   the   German   archaeologist,    August    Mau, 
was  built  at  the  expense  of  the  priestess  Mamia,  whose  tomb  has  been 
described.      It   is   a   very  small   building,  and   its   vestibule,   covered  by 
a    roof    supported    by    four   columns,   leaves   the   cella   entirely   exposed. 
The  cella   is  approached   by   a   flight   of    steps    on    either    side,    facing 
the  back  wall,  so  that  they  cannot  be  seen   from  in  front.     Before  this 
little  sanctuary,   which   also   bore  the   names   of    QuiHnus    and    of   the 
Genius  of  Augustus,  there  is  an  altar  of   fine  white  marble,  carved  with 
sculptures  of  no  great  artistic  merit,  but  of  some  interest  in  their  detail. 


Terra-cotta  Statue  of  Juno 
(Naples  Museum  I 


In  the  bas-relief  on  the  front  of  the  altar,  the  Popa,  with  two  assistants, 
leads  the  bull  destined  for  the  sacrifice.  A  vidimarius,  stripped  to  the 
waist,  is  wearing  the  limus  and  holds  a  mallet  in  his  hand.     The  sacrificer, 


Temple  of  Jupiter  Meilichios 


a  magistrate  (probably  an  Augustalis,  as  may  be  gathered  from  his  armed 
suite),  pours  a  libation  on  the  tripod,  and  behind  him  stands  the  camillus. 


Temple  of  Vespasian 


with  the  vitta  on  his  shoulders,  and  carrying  the  simpulum  and  the  patera. 
Farther  on  a  young  man,  the  fictor,  offers  a  patella  full  of  cakes,  while  in 
the  background  a  tibicen  plays  the  tibiae-pares. 

On  the  back  of  the  altar  is  carved  a  crown,  and  on  the  lateral  faces 


■Mii 


i\ 


94 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


are  the  various  objects  used  in  sacrifices.     On  the  one,  a  simpulum  with  a 
prerfcriculum,  and  a  small  vessel  for  lustral  water ;  on  the  other,  a  liiuus 

II 


Bas-relief  of  the  Altar  of  the  Temple  of  Vespasian 

(the  curved  emblem  of  the  augurs),  an  acerra,  the  box  of  incense,  and  the 


Bas-relief  of  the  Altar  of  the  Temple  of  Vespasian 

mantile,  a  towel  with  a  thick  long  nap,  used  to  staunch  the  blood  of  the 
victims. 

A  kind  of  meat-hook,  the  pembelon*  was  used  to  keep  the  flesh  of  the 

*  The  pembelon  was  also  a  kitchen  utensil.     See  Helbig,  VE^ofit  homerique  expliquee  par  la 
monuments.    Trans.  Travinski.     Introduction  by  Max  ColUgnon. 


THE   TOMBS,    THE  TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


95 


victim  on  the  altar-fire,  and  basins   with    movable  handles  contained  the 
entrails  of  the  victims,  in  which  the  augurs  read  whatever  their  imagination 


Patera  (Naples  Muaciun) 


Pembelon  (Naples  Museum) 


suggested ;    for   the   art   of  divination,    derived   from  the  cult  of  Apollo, 


Sacrifice  of  a  I'ig  (M.arble  Bas-relief  in  the 
Naples  Museum) 


Bronze  Basin,  to  hold  Entrails  of  V'ictims 
(Naples  Musetun) 


was   much    practised    among   the    Romans,    who    were    extremely  super- 
stitious. 


A\ 


i 


1 


^ 


1 


f*: 


VIII 

THE  TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER,   OR  CAPITOLIUM— THE   MACELLUM— 

THE  SANCTUARY  OF  THE  LARES  OF  THE  CITY— THE  AUGUSTEUM— THE 

AUGUSTALES— THE    LARES  OF  AUGUSTUS— THE  LARES  COMPITALES— THE 

BUILDING  OF  EUMACHIA— THE   PUBLIC   PRIESTESSES 


T 


HE  Temple  of  Jupiter  Optimus  Maximus,  the  master  of  the  gods 
stood  in  the  Forum,  in  the  place  of  honour.  Fiorelli  tells  us  that 
this  temple,  which  was  of  great  height,  was  very  much  damaged  by 

the  earthquake  of  63,  and  that  it  had 
not  been  restored  at  the  time  of  the 
destruction  of  the  city.  The  interior 
of  the  building  had  a  rich  polychrome 
decoration,  and  a  large  head  of  Jupiter 
was  found  in  the  cei/a.  In  the  front  of 
the  temple,  on  either  side  of  the  podium, 
were  two  pedestals  for  equestrian 
statues.  Several  writers  suppose  that 
the  pulpitum  of  the  flight  of  steps  was 
probably  used  as  a  platform  by  orators 
when  public  matters  were  discussed  in 
the  civil  Forum.*  The  portico  con- 
sists of  twelve  columns,  six  in  front 
and    three    on    either    side,    and    the 


^"1 

Marble  Bust  of  Jupiter  (Naples  Museum) 


*  Breton,  Pomf>«ia  dicrtU  et  dtssince. 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


97 


corresponding  pilasters  have  the  same  arrangement.     The  sanctuary  had 
a   double   row   of   Ionic  columns,   above  which  rose  Corinthian  columns. 


Temple  of  Jupiter,  or  Capitolium 


t^-'  J 


forming  an  upper  gallery,  reached  by  a  flight  of  steps  behind   the  base 
of  the  building. 

This  lofty  base  is  pierced  by  three  doors  that  open  into  three  ce//a, 


Interior  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter 

which,  according  to  Mau,  contained  the  statues  of  the  three  Capitoline 
deities  who  were  worshipped  in  the  little  temple  of  ^sculapius.  Thus  the 
Forum  of  Pompei  had  its  Capitol.     At  the  later  period  of  the  city's  history, 

N 


I 

.1 


Il 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


97 


VIII 

THE  TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER.   OR  CAPITOLIUM-THE  MACELLUM- 
THE  SANCTUARY  OF  THE  LARES  OF  THE  CITY-THE  AUGUSTEUM-THE 
AUGUSTALES-THE    LARES  OF   AUGUSTUS-THE   LARES  COMPITALES-THE 
BUILDING  OF  EUMACHIA-THE   PUBLIC   PRIESTESSES 


T 


HE  Temple  of  Jupiter  Optlmus  Maximus,  the  master  of  the  gods 
stood  in  the  Forum,  in  the  place  of  honour.  Fiorelli  tells  us  that 
this  temple,  which  was  of  great  height,  was  very  much  damaged  by 

the  earthquake  of  63,  and  that  it  had 
not  been  restored  at  the  time   of  the 
destruction  of  the  city.     The  interior 
of  the  building  had  a  rich  polychrome 
decoration,  and  a  large  head  of  Jupiter 
was  found  in  the  cella.     In  the  front  of 
the  temple,  on  either  side  of  the  podium, 
were    two     pedestals     for     equestrian 
statues.     Several  writers  suppose  that 
the  pulpit um  of  the  flight  of  steps  was 
probably  used  as  a  platform  by  orators 
when  public  matters  were  discussed  in 
the   civil   Forum.*     The  portico  con- 
sists  of  twelve   columns,  six  in  front 
and    three    on    either    side,    and    the 


^"7 

Miirble  Bust  of  Jupiler  (Naples  Museum) 


corresponding  pilasters  have  the  same  arrangement.     The  sanctuary  had 
a   double   row   of   Ionic  columns,   above  which  rose  Corinthian  columns. 


Temple  of  Jupiter,  or  Capitolium 

forming  an  upper  gallery,  reached  by  a  flight  of  steps  behind    the  base 
of  the  building. 

This  lofty  base  is  pierced  by  three  doors  that  open   into  three  celice. 


•  Breton,  Pomf>tia  JicriU  ct  Jessinee. 


Interior  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter 

which,  according  to  Mau,  contained  the  statues  of  the  three  Capltoline 
deities  who  were  worshipped  in  the  little  temple  of  yEsculapius.  Thus  the 
Forum  of  Pompei  had  its  Capitol.     At  the  later  period  of  the  city's  history, 

N 


98 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


1. 


however,  the  temple  contained  only  fragments  of  statues  and  broken  orna- 
ment that  had  been  left  there ;  *  and  the  Temple  of  Jupiter,  like  many 
others,  was   deserted    in    favour  of  the    newly-created    Roman    worships. 


The^Nfacellum 


which  found  their  supreme  expression  in  the  honours  paid  to  the  deified 


Aiis^Hsius. 


'^-n 


The  small  Temple  of  Augustus 


The  Angiistalcs,  whose  names  are  frequently  mentioned  in  lapidary 
inscriptions,  formed  a  college  at  Pompei.  They  had  accordingly  a  place 
of  meeting,  and  this  it  has  been  thought  possible  to  determine  from  the 

■   S>ec  the  Bulletin  arcluvlogique  de  la  Religion  romaine,  by  Aug.  AudoUent.    Leroux:  Paris,  1898. 


THE    rOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


99 


discovery  of  some  portions  of  a  building  which,  owing  to  the  different 
elements  composing  it,  has  been  given  a  variety  of  names.  It  lies  on  the 
right  side  of  the  civil  Forum,  and  contains  a  large  open  space  surrounded 
by  shops  and  rooms.  In  the  centre  are  twelve  pedestals  on  a  low 
dodecagonal  base,  which,  no  doubt,  supported  the  basin  of  a  fountain. 
The  twelve  pedestals  suggested  the  theory  that  statues  of  the  twelve  gods 
may  have  been  placed  here,  and  the  building  was  named  the  Pantheon  in 
consequence.  Afterwards  it  was  discovered  that  the  open  space  was  a 
market — the  macelltim,  as  it  is  now  called — and  that  the  twelve  "pedestals  " 
supported  a  domed  roof  or  tholus.  Tradesmen  must  undoubtedly  have  had 
shops  in  the  small  rooms  round  the  area,  and  a  large  number  of  bronze  and 
silver  coins  were  found  here  in  cash-boxes  (1036  bronze  and  36  silver  coins, 
and  93  of  other  sorts).  The  walls  of  the  peribolus  are  decorated  with 
paintings  in  good  preservation. 

At  the  farther  end  of  the  area  stands  a  small  temple,  or  sacellum, 
which  consists  only  of  a  cella  raised  above  a  few  steps.  In  the  niches  of 
the  lateral  walls  two  marble  statues  were  discovered,  representing  either 
Livia  and  Drusus,  or  Marcellus  and  Octavia.  Within  the  sanctuary  there 
is  a  pedestal  on  which  the  statue  of  the  deified  Augustus  is  supposed  to 
have  stood.  This  sacellutn,  which  is  the  principal  part  of  the  Augusietim* 
is  flanked  on  the  left  by  a  vast  hall  decorated  with  paintings,  in  one  corner 
of  which  stands  a  little  chapel  with  an  altar  for  the  sacrifice  of  victims,  and 
a  stone  bench.  It  was  in  this  hall  that  the  religious  banquets  must  have 
been  given.  On  the  right  of  the  sacellum  is  another  hall,  as  large  as  that 
on  the  left,  containing  a  block  of  masonry  on  which  fish  were  sold.  The  wall 
at  the  farther  end  of  the  hall  is  decorated  by  a  painting  representing  the 
Assembly  of  the  Gods.  Both  these  halls  had  vaulted  roofs,  and  their 
facades  were  supported  by  columns. 

According  to  Mau,  another  building,  the  Sanctuary  of  the  Lares  of  the 

'^-  According  to  Sogliano,  the  Augusteum  was  situated  near  the  Gate  of  the  Seashore,  on  the 
site  we  take  to  be  that  of  the  Temple  of  Venus. 


lOO 


POMl'EI  :    THE   CirV,    ITS    LIKE   AND    AR  T 


City,  was  the  place  where  the  Lares  of  Augustus  were  worshipped,  together 
with  the  pubh'c  Lares.  This  building  consists  of  an  area,  in  the  centre  of 
which  stands  an  altar  to  the  Emperor  and  his  children.  At  its  dedication 
there  were  gladiatorial  combats  and  spectacles  for  the  people.*  The  farther 
end  of  the  ana  ends  in  an  apse,  and  contains  a  shrine  with  a   pedestal 

wide  enough  to  support 
the  statues  of  various 
guardian  deities  of  the 
city.t 

There  were  also 
altars  erected  to  the 
Lares  compi tales  at  the 
crossway  where  the 
Streets  of  Nola  and 
Stabiae  meet ;  near  the 
House  of  the  Citharista: 
and  on  the  left-hand 
^T5»i»||~  side  of  the  Street  of 
^ 'f|l<  Mercury  was  a  private 
chapel,  forming  a  per- 

Altar  of  the  L;ires  coiiipitalcs.     Crossway  of  the  Streets  of  Xola  and  Stabi.i:  /  i  • 

gula,  a  small  room,  ni 
which  were  seats  for  priests  and  niches  for  the  gods. 

The  Lares  of  the  city  were  celebrated  in  great  public  festivals  which 
took  place  in  January,  after  the  Saturnalia,  when  all  the  streets  rang  with 
shouts  of  joy  and  the  noise  of  games  and  cheering.  {  These  festivals, 
originally  instituted  by  the  Etruscan  IVListarna,  who  became  King  of  Rome 
under  the  name  of  Servius  Tullius,  served  to  unite  the  different  quarters  of 
the  town  in  common  worship,  and  to  bring  the  different  classes  together  by 
means  of  popular  gatherings,  thus  promoting  a  more  intimate  association  of 
the  citizens. 


-  Fiorelli.        f  A.  Audollent,  Bulktin  urdxiologuiuc  di  la  Religion  romaiiu.        \  ^neid  VIII.  77. 


THE   TOMBS,    THE   TEMPLES    AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 
Suppressed  by  Caesar,  these  festivals  were  re-established  by  Aucrustus,* 


Building  of  Eumachia 

who,  under  cover  of  the   popular  veneration  for   the   Lans   compitaks, 
introduced   the  associa- 
tion of  the  Lares  of  the 
Emperor  with  the  Lares 
of  the  city.    This  fusion 
was    brought  about  by 
the  co-operation  of  the 
magistri  vicorum — civil 
magistrates    who    were 
responsible  for  the  dis- 
tribution   of   the    Em- 
peror's  bounties ;    they 
commanded  a    body  of 
slaves  whose  duty  it  was 
to  put  out  fires  in  the 
city,  and  had  also  some- 
thing   of     a     religious 
character,  which  they  did  not  fail  to  turn  to  account  in  their  own  interests. 

•  Boissier,  La  Rtligion  romaine. 


Side  Entrance  10  the  Muilding  of  Eumaehia ;  in  front  of  it  is  the  Founuin 

of  Abundance 


J02 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


It  is  extremely  probable  that,  from  this  body  of  functionaries   thus 
invested  with  a  dual  character,  was  formed  the  corporation  of  AugustaUs — 

the  priests  of  the  Ca^siirs 
— several  of  whom  earned 
the  honour  of  the  biscl- 
Hum,  awarded  by  the 
decurions,  as  certain  in- 
scriptions on  tombs 
record. 

Women  also  exer- 
cised sacerdotal  functions. 
A  building  at  Pompei, 
which  can  scarcely  be 
classed  with  the  temples, 
but  is  to  a  certain  extent 
a  religious  edifice,  is  the 
broiucBibdiiuiin.\aiji«Mu:,cuni)  portico    built    by    the 

priestess  Eumachia.     Her  statue  has  been  discovered      On  the   pedestal 
is  the  following  inscription  : 

EUMACHIAE  L-F 

SACERD • PVBL • 

FVLLONES 

•'To  Euiuacbia,  daughter  of  Lucius,  and  public  priestess,  the  fullers"  [erected  this]. 

The  entrance  opened  upon  the  Forum,  and  has  an  inscription  which  is 
also  found  over  a  lateral  door  opening  into  the  Street  of  Abundance,  repro- 
duced in  one  of  our  illustrations :  "  Euniachia,  daughter  of  Lucius,  a  public 
priestess,  in  her  own  name,  and  in  the  name  of  her  son,  Marcus  Numister 
Frunto,  has  erected  at  her  own  cost  a  chalcidicum,  a  crypt,  and  a  portico,  and 
has  dedicated  them  to  Concordia  Augusta  and  to  Pietas.'"*     The  building 

-  This  was  a  dedication  to  Tiberius  and  Livia,  for  the  effigy  of  Piety  is  represented   on 
some  of  the  Emperor's  coins.    {^Sogliano). 


THE  TOMDS,   THE  TEMPLES  AND  THE  VARIOUS  CULTS 


103 


consists  of  an  area, 
surrounded  by  a  covered 
gallery  (portico)  and 
another  enclosed  gallery 
(crypto-portico).  The 
'cha/iidicum*  was  the 
outer  portico,  supported 
by  sixteen  columns ;  at 


>farr)Ic  Sutue  of  a  Priejtess  of  Pompe 
(Naples  Museum) 

its   farther  end  are  two 

Schola,  the  members  of 

met  together,  under  the 

a  woman  whose  refined 

expression.      Other 

cords  of  their  names  at 

of    Holconia,    Lassia, 

Temple    of    Vespasian, 

Ru fella,  whose  memorial 

tomb  of  Mamia.      Thus 

dotal  office   was   by   no 

Pompei,  and  Cicero  tells  us  that  the  priestesses  of 

Naples.     They  were  matrons  who  were  held  in 


Eumachia  (Nfarl.le  Statue  in  the 
N;iples  Museum) 


Marble  Statue  of  a  Priestess  of  Pompei 
(Naples  Museum) 

exedrcr.      Here,    in    the 
the  corporation  of  Fullers 
patronage  of  Eumachia, 
face    has    a   melancholy 
priestesses  have  left  re- 
Pompei.   We  know  those 
Mamia,    who    built    the 
and    of    Istacidia  N.   F. 
cippus  stands  beside  the 
we  see   that   the   sacer- 
means  confined  to  men  in 
Venus  were  recruited  in 
great  honour,  and  whose 


*  The  word  •«  chalcidicum  "  is  derived  from  the  town  of  Chalcis  in  E„b«a,  where  this  kind  of 
buildmg  appears  to  have  l)een  invented, 


104 


POMPEI:    THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


large  fortunes  enabled  them  to  give  public  games  or  decorate  a  theatre, 
as  a  free  gift  to  the  city.  In  return  they  received  public  honours,  and 
great  associations  put  themselves  under  their  patronage  ;  the  senators  of  a 
city  in  Italy  even  awarded  a  certain  Nummia  Valeria,  priestess  of  Venus, 
the  title  of  Protectress  of  the  City.* 


•  According  to  Man,  the  sacerdotal  offices  at  Pompei  may  be  classed  as  follows :  (i)  Priestesses 
of  Ceres  and  of  Venus.  (2)  Priest  {flamen,  sacerdos)  of  Augustus.  (3)  Augustales.  (4)  Ministers  of 
Augustus,  of  Mercury,  and  of  Maia.  (5)  Ministers  of  Fortuna  Augusta.  (6)  Masters  (inagistri) 
and  ministers  oi  ihe  pagiis  (borough)  Augustus  Felix,  called  after  the  Emperor. 


IX 


THE   LARES   DOMEST.CI   AND   THE.K   OK.OIN-THE  GENIUS   LOCI- 
SERPENTS  (AGATHOD.EMONS)   ANO  THEIR   INFLUENCE 

T  N  addition  to  the  public  services  in  temples,  which  included  the  sacrifice 
1  of  victims  and  the  celebration  of  mysteries,  private  worship  of  the 
gods  was  also  held  in  every  house,  although,  in  the  early  days  of  Rome 
Numa  had  forbidden  his  people  to  worship  and  invoke  the  gods  in  their 
own  homes,  or  in  any  place  but  the  temples.  The  Gra^co-Roman  houses 
had  accordingly  a  sacred  place  or  shrine-the  Laranum-^h^r^  the  Lares. 
Penates,  and  Genii  were  invoked. 

..       The  ancients,  who  believed  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  accepted  the 
existence  of  secondary  divinities,  intermediaries  between  heaven,  the  lower 
world,  and  the  earth.     The  Manes  of  the  dead,  it  was   thought,  haunted 
their  old  homes  to  protect  them  ;   and  the  spirits  of  dead  kinsmen  were 
honoured  in  the  house  itself,  because,  in  the  earliest  times,  the  dead  were 
buried  m  their  own  domiciles.    But.  for  reasons  connected  with  the  character 
of  individuals,  all  the  dead  did  not  become  tutelary  genii  :  the  evil  spirits  or 
/arv^.  and  the  souls  of  the  dead  who  had  not  received  the  rites  of  burial, 
could  find  no  resting-place,  and  were  condemned  to  remain  "  unquiet  ghosts." 
The  spirits  of  the  good  were  the  Umurs,  or  /ar.*     Yet,  as  the  truc^ nature 
of  the  dead  man  could  never  be  known,  the  purest  part  of  the  spirit  was 

'  *'•  Gmgnia„l,.  i„  his  ,„„,^,i„„  „,  ^reuzer.  s.-,ys  that  the  .so„,i,„e„t  of  ho,ne.  the  earliest 
ne,„ones  of  the  hou«>  of  our  fathers,  the  in.hnate  fa.„H,arity  with  a„d  tender  confidence  In  place 

^z^z^:::^-'' "--'''--'  "■-'--'"-  =--  -^  -iin,s..oh::d:; 


io6 


I'OMPEI:    THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 


included  under  the  name  of  Manes,  which  were  honoured  as  demi-<rods  and 
became  the  Lares,  or  protectors  of  the  hearth.*  Cicero  says  that  relations 
who  are  dead  are  to  be  considered  as  gods.  There  were  many  classes  and 
infinite  varieties  of  Lares :  the  Lares publici,  or  Augusti,  who  were  the  genii 
of  the  deified  emperors,  and  the  Lares  compitales,  or  Lares  of  the  city,  have 
been  already  mentioned  ;  there  were  also  the  Lares  rtistici,  marini, 
familians,  and  domestici.  The  little  Lares  were  the  gods  of  the  country, 
Priapus,  Vertumnus,  and  the  rest ;  the  great  Lares  were  the  genii  of  the 
twelve  great  gods,  and  were  also  called  PenatesA 

The  Lares  domestici  were  the  object  of  special  devotion  in  every  family 
where  ancestors  were  reverenced.  There  are  innumerable  altars  to  these 
Lares  in  Pompeii,  ornamented  with  figures  of  the  gods,  and  with  decorations 
varying  according  to  the  wealth  and  religious  sentiments  of  the  master  of 
the  house.  Among  the  ruins  of  the  city,  one  might  well  say,  with  the 
Quartilla  of  Petronius,   "  it  is  easier  to  find  a  god  than  a  man." 

'•  The  gods  are  the  sons  of  fear,"  as  Petronius  says,  and  Maximus 
Tyrius  estimates  their  number  at  30,000.  These  figures  are  not  surprising 
when  we  remember  that  the  Romans  included  all  the  new  gods  that 
came  to  their  notice  among  the  little  gods,  the  dii  populares,  the  majority 
of  whom  owed  their  names  to  some  special  attribute  ascribed  to  them. 
Even  the  unknown  gods  present  or  to  come  {liii  igiioti)  were  included  in 
their  crowded  Olympus.  When  the  Romans  were  at  a  loss  for  a  new 
power  whose  protection  they  might  invoke,  they  invented  other  divinities 
whose  Lares  inherited  their  godhead.     Thus  the  genius  of  Augustus,  which 

*  The  germ  of  the  idea  of  tlie  Lur  is  to  be  found,  I  believe,  in  the  Works  and  Days,  where 
Hesiod,  after  having'  told  of  the  connnon  origin  of  gods  and  men,  and  of  the  early  Eden  of  Saturn's 
reign,  says  :  "  At  that  time  men  died  as  if  they  had  fallen  asleep,  but  when  the  earth  had  closed 
over  this  earlier  race,  Jupiter  made  them  into  kind  spirits  u'lio  /itv  amonf^  us,  kapint^  watch  ovtr  men, 
and  observing  deeds  just  and  unjust.  They  are  wrapped  about  in  clouds  that  hide  them  from  our 
sight,  and  go  wandering  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  to  distribute  riches  among  men  ;  such  is  the 
royal  function  allotted  them." 

»  The  Penates,  strictly  speaking,  were  the  Gods  of  the  State,  considered  as  a  family  of  citizens, 
to  whom  the  whole  Roman  nation  offered  sacrifices  on  certain  days. 


^/^ 


...  ^.i. -■-' •  «— ^^^.*-^-«--^-. ■   '  «    ■-,■■■«» .iianira-«-f^ 


^ 


I\ 


.•Irirri 


<    A -■  \     I  >  I    I    I    \     (    A  I    I    I  \ 


Ml  I     II'  i|    >^|  hi    I     !•'  .1    1    \     I  i;  \ 


<  .     (    <  t 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


107 


was  invoked  during  the  Emperor's  lifetime,  after  his  death  became  a  Lar, 
and  was  worshipped  as  a  divinity.  Later  on,  the  practice  was  carried  to 
still  greater  lengths.  The  great  men  who  had  educated  Marcus  Aurelius 
became  his  Lares,  while  Alexander  Severus  worshipped  Orpheus,  Abraham, 
and  Jesus  Christ,  showing  an  eclectic 


« 


Mowns 


rf# 


spirit  in  the  composition  of  his  curious 
Pantheon  not  often  paralleled  among 
the  devout.* 

The  greatest   freedom    in    the 
choice  of   patron   gods   was    given 
to  every  one,  hence  the  numberless 
paintings   and   statuettes,    of  which    ife^ 
we  will  notice  the  most  characteristic        "  -"^ -— "^^^  '^^\-n 

The  Genius  loci.     A  Painting  from  Herculaneuin 

specimens.     The  Lararium  itself  is  (Naples  Museum) 

often  quite  simple,  the  place  being  dedicated  to  some  divinity  by  a  single 
painting.  Stucco  bas-reliefs  or  paintings  of  serpents  decorated  the  walls  of 
several  rooms  in  the  house  as  emblems  of  the  {renins  loci. 

In  one  of  our  illustrations  Harpocrates  is  represented  with  finger  on  lip, 
beside  an  altar  round  which  is  coiled  a  serpent  about  to  eat  the  dates  and 
figs  placed  there  as  an  offering.  An  inscription  in  the  background  runs  as 
follows:  ''Genius  hujus  loci  montis'' :  "The  genius  of  this  place,  of  this 
mountain." 

So,  in  the  yEncid,  /Eneas,  after  having  performed  the  funeral  rites 
of  Anchises,  sees  a  serpent  gliding  from  his  father's  tomb,  but  doubts 
whether  the  serpent  is  the  familiar  genius  of  his  father  or  the  genius  loci. 

Serpents  were  held  in  such  great  veneration  that  they  became  the 
objects  of  a  popular  cult.  At  Rome  f  it  was  the  custom  to  tame  them  and 
feed  them  in  the  house,  and  at  banquets  they  glided  into  the  laps  of  the 
guests.J 

*  Christ  was  accepted  by  the  Pagans  as  a  god,  and  equal  to  their  own  gods,  but  the  Christians 
were  not  content  with  this,  and  this  was  one  of  the  pretexts  for  the  persecutions. 

t  Pliny  XXIX.  ch.  iv.  \  Seneca,  Dc  Ira  II.,  xxxi. 


io8 


POMPEI:   THE  CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


In  time,  no  doubt,  these  tame  serpents  increased  until  they  became  a 
nuisance,  and  instead  of  keeping  the  living  reptiles  in  the  house,  serpents 
were  represented  on  the  walls.*  These  genii  were  painted  everywhere,  to 
protect  kitchens,  bakehouses,  the  walls  of  the  streets  and  street  corners. 
Persius,  who  wished  all  things  to  be  as  white  as  snow,  writes  t  : 

Pingc  duos  angucs :  pucri,  sacer  est  locus ;  extra 
Mejite, 

Inscriptions    are    sometimes    added    to    the    picture     to    emphasise     its 
meaning  ;  such  as  : 

Otiosus  locus  hie  non  est,  decede  morator ; 

Or: 

Duodecim  Deos  et  Dianam  et  Jovem  optimum  maximum  habcat  iratos 
quisquis  hie  minxerit  aut  cacaverit. 

Above  a  painting  that  represents  a  man  stooping  and  attacked  by 

two  serpents  are  written  the 
words :  Cacator  cave  malum. 
These  admonitions  must  cer- 
tainly have  been  necessary 
before  Vespasian's  time,  and 
similar  warnings  were  written 
on  the  walls  of  the  corridors 
leading  to  the  therinee  of 
Trajan    at    Rome.       Popular 

Protective  Sign  (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum)  habltS      SCCm      tO      have      bceH 

much  the  same  in  all  ages,  and  among  the  ancients  certain  inscriptions 
served,  as  now,  to  protect  public  monuments  from  pollution.  It  is  curious 
to  note  the  influence  of  religion  in  all  the  details  of  life  among  the  ancients, 

•  At  Pompei,  harmless  serpents,  very  like  the  famous  gtnix  loci,  still  infest  the  fortified  walls 
looking  towards  the  country, 
I  Persius,  Sat.  I. 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


109 


who,  like  practical  people,  even  pressed  the  gods  into  the  service  of  the 
street-police. 

In  the  Roman  religion  serpents  were  always  regarded  as  protecting 
genii,  while,  in  the  earlier  history  of  their  cult,  which  is  an  extremely 
ancient  one.  they  are  considered  as  good  or  evil  powers  according  to 
circumstances. 


LARARIA— THF-:   RITES  AND  CUSTOMS  OF  THE  DOMESTIC   CULT  OF 

THE   LARES 


LET  US  enter  a  house  in  Pompei  through  i\\Gproi/iyntJft*  passing  over 
the  i^reetings  Sahr  or  Haz'C,  and  u^ranting  the  tribute  of  a  sigh  to 
the  forgotten  gods  of  the  door.     The  panels  are  gone  ;  Foculus  once 
watched  over  these ;  Limentinus  protected  the  threshold  and  lintel ;  the 

goddess  Cardea  guarded  the  hinges;  and  Janus 
was  the  patron  of  the  whole.  Within,  in 
one  corner  of  the  atrium,  we  find  a  niche 
hollowed  in  the  wall,  in  which  is  placed  a  shrine 
with  a  puhinarA  There  the  images  of 
ancestors  (imai^incs  7najoruffi)  used  to  be  kept, 
with  the  Lares  and  tutelar)'  deities.  The 
images  of  the  absent,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
dead,  were  placed  in  the  recesses  round  the 
atrium,  and  Ovid  describes  the  wife  of  Trote- 
siliius  looking  tenderly  at  the  [portrait  of  her 
husband,  who  has  set  out  for  the  war,  and  em- 
bracing it  as  though  it  were  Protesiliius  himself  { 

Petronius  thus  describes  a  iararium  :§  **  In  the  corner  of  the  portico  I 
saw  another  vast  cupboard  enclosing  a  shrine,  in  which  were  kept  silver 


Stucco  Larariiim 


•  Sec  Part  V. 

*  Ili-roiihs. 


t  The  ptilvinar  was  the  ceremonial  bed  of  the  gods. 
§  Petronius,  Sat.  XXIX. 


THE   TOMBS    THE     TEMPLES    AND   THE    VARIOUS    CULTS 


111 


Lares,  a  marble  statue  of  Venus,  and  a  golden  box  of  fair  size,  which,  they 
say,       enshrined 
Trimalchio's     first 
beiird." 

It  was  not  only 
in  the  atrium  that 
lararia  stood,  how- 
ever ;    the  peristy- 
iium  *     sometimes 
contained  a  shrine, 
and  certain  rooms 
known     as    sacclli 
were  veritable  sane 
tuaries.       These 
private     oratories, 
ending  in  an  apse, 
are  chiefly  found  in 
the  houses  of  rich  ,,         ^ , 

Atnuni  and  I^raiiuni  of  a  House  in  ihc  Struct  of  XoUi 

men,  where   the   gods   were   luxuriously  worshipped.     Cicero  describes  a 

chapel  of  this  kind.f 
which  contained  a 
marble  statue  of  Cupid 
by  Praxiteles,  a  bronze 
Hercules  by  Myron, 
Canephorae  of  bronze 
Ky-tf--)  by  Polycletus,  and  a 
wooden  statue  of  Bona 

Saccllum  j^ 

rortuna.        Important 
documents  and  objects  of  great  value  were  stored    in  this   sacred   place, 
which   was  always  protected  by  the  guardian  serpents  (agathociccmons), 
*  ^"^  ^'^*  ^-  +  The  house  of  Popidius  Priseus  had  a  zacdlum. 


'^mwmmwm, 


112 


POMPEI:    THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


In  a  painting  in  a  lararium 
dedicated  to  the  Genius  of 
Apollo,  the  omphalos,  the  em- 
blem of  the  god,  is  represented 
covered  with  a  network  ;  round 
it  is  the  serpent  Python,  here 
the  agathodiemon  :  the  two  Lares 
wear  the  Phrygian  bonnet  In 
Omphalos  (Painting  ill  ;i  Lararium  dcdicau-d  to  Aixjiio)        another  paintin"',  near  an  ovcn 

where  bread  was  baked,  the 

genii    loci   are    represented 

on    either   side   of  an    altar 

covered  with   fruit.     Above 

them  is  seated  Ceres,  holding 

thecornucopiaand  tha />a/era,    1 

and  about  to  pour  a  libation 

on    a    little    altar   wreathed 

with  ears  of  corn.     She  is 

attended    by   Lares  pocilla- 

tores   crowned    with    leaves,  AUartoCere, 

f^^^r^K^^^*^^^^  wearing  a  short  tunic  {snccinctis 

"^^  ^A         '^'fV^i        laribus\   and   holding    in    their 

hands  the  rkyion,  from  which  a 
stream  of  wine  falls  in  a  graceful 
curve. 

This  is  the  aspect  in  which 
\.\niLares /amiliares  are  generally 
represented,   and  they  often 

Siicritki.- to  Abundance  (I 'aintifcB)  < 

appear  to  be  executmg  a  pirou- 
On  the  floor  by  the  wall  is  a  block  of  masonry  where  the  kneading- 
♦  See  Emmanuel.  La  Dansi  Gncqui  antique,  266.     Hachctte :  Paris,  1896. 


ette. 


.  * 


THE  TOMBS.   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS  .„ 

trough    must    have    stood  -  an     altar,    as     it    were,    to     the    goddess 
Ceres. 

Another  painting  represents  Abundance  standing,  and  by  her  side  a 
little  eamtllus  crowned  with  green  leaves,  and  holding  a  wreath  of  flowers 

and  ^patella  full  of  food.*     A  vouncr  nnn  \r.  .     u%     i 

"u.       ,A  )  oung  man  m  a  white  dress  plays  upon  the 

tibid'-pares,   and    marks 
time  with  the  scabcllum 
used    by    the    tibicincs. 
Behind  him  a  child  leads 
a    pig,    bound    with    a 
red    girdle    with    black 
stripes,  to  the  altar   of 
sacrifice,  and  two  Lares 
enframe  the    central 
group. 

Sometimes  the 
central  figure  is  of 
bronze,  as  is  the  statu- 
ette of  Abundance  here 
reproduced.  The  god- 
dess holds  a  silver 
/rt/rrrt;  in  her  right  hand,  n  '^''^'' 

'^  "™"^'^"  Mafuettejof  Al.iindance  (Naples  Museum) 

and  is  seated  on  a  throne  ornamented  with  two  tritons,  her  feet  resting  on  a 
stool  with  a  sphinx  at  either  end.  Flanl<ing  the  goddess  are  two  drncing 
Lans  pocilhtorcs,  and  above  the  shrine  is  hung  a  lamp,  shaped  like  a  human 
foot,  suspended  by  a  short  chain.  Below  the  hrarium  a  small  circular  altar 
was  placed,  on  which  incense  was  sprinkled  and  libations  poured.  The 
flames  then  consumed  the  offering,  grateful  to  the  guardian  spirits  of  the 
hearth,  and  necesKiry  to  them  in  their  life  beyond  the  tomb. 

'■ThoM'ra  was  used  in  s.icrilicc5  for  oBfcrings  of  wine,  while  (he  f.„IM'  w.is  used  for  Ihc 
sol,d  food  offered  to  the  cods.     This  is  why  the  Lares  .tre  s,>mcti„ics  e.dlcd  the  .Hi  f.„M.m. 


r 


114 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


On  the  altars  of  these  guardian  deities  were  found  statuettes  of  the 
other  <,^ods,  Jupiter,  Minerva,  Hercules,  Harpocrates,  Mercury,  Venus, 
Isis-Fortuna,  Diana,  and  Apollo.  A  polychrome  statue  of  Aphrodite, 
bare  to   the   legs,   and    holding    an    apple    in    the    left   hand,  was    also 

discovered.* 
j^^^  Lararia  were  often 

of  considerable  size ; 
they  were  then  called 
sacrariaA  and  occupied 
an  intermediate  position 
between  a  sacellmn  and 
a  simple  niche.  In  the 
house  of  Epidius  Sabi- 
nus  a  large  stucco  altar 
fills  one  corner  of  the 
atrium.  On  its  two 
sides  are  painted  orna- 
ments of  chimrcras  and 
birds  in  light  tones  of 
colour.  The  short 
columns  rising  from  the 
base  support  a  pediment 

I^nrariuni  of  Epidius  Sabiiius  (polychrome  stucco)  Omamentcd  with   StUCCO 

mouldings  in  the  primary  colours,  blue,  red,  and  yellow,  which  were  always 
used  for  this  style  of  decoration. 

In  the  house  known  as  the  House  of  the  Diadumeni,  next  to  the 
House  of  Epidius  Sabinus,  there  is  a  similar  iararinm,  which  bears  the 
inscription  :    Gcnio  Marci  Nostri    ct    Laribus    duo    Diadumeni    liberti, 

*  Sec  Part  VI.  iii.  2. 

\  The  sacellum  always  contained  a  chapel  with  an  altar  erected  to  some  divinity,  while  the 
sacrarinm  was  both  a  room  adjoining  the  temple,  where  the  sacred  utensils  were  kept,  and 
also  the  place  in  pri\atc  houses  consecrated  to  the  guardian  divinities. 


THE   TOMBS,   THE    TEMPLES    AND   THE    VARIOUS   CULTS 


»i5 


Another  altar  of  coloured 
stucco,  with  a  pediment, 
stands  opposite  a  venereum, 
in  a  house  not  far  from  the 
Triangular  Forum. 

Bronze  statuettes  of 
Hercules  and  Apollo,  -/Escu- 
lapius  and  Mercury,  and  also 
of  the  secondary  deities, 
the  guardian  Lares,  were 
arranged  on  the  abacus  of 
the  lararium,  in  front  of  a 
painted  figure  of  Abundance 
surrounded  by  serpents 
(agathodtcmons).  Before  this  yj] 
gathering  of  the  gods  was  set  fij 


Bronze  Statuette  of  Apollo 
(Napleii  Museum) 


Larariutii  of  polychrome  stucco 

a   lamp   with   a    crescent- shaped    ornament,    the 
emblem  of  Diana  or  of   I  sis. 

It  was  on  these  altars  that  the  young  free- 
born  Pompeian,  when  he  came  to  man's  estate, 
laid  the  purple  and  the  toga  pnctcxta  of  his  child- 
hood, and  hung  up  his  golden  or  leathern  bulla 
on  the  cippus  that  represented  the  gods  of  the 
hearth.*  It  was  here  that  a  portion  of  the  food 
was  offered  to  the  gods  before  a  meal  ;  and  on 

great  days,  on  the  feasts  known  as  laralia,  the 
*  Persius,  Sat.  V. 


114 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS  115 


.^1 


On. the  altars  of  these  guardian  deities  were  found  statuettes  of  the 
other  gods,  Jupiter,  Minerva,  Hercules,  Harpocrates,  Mercury,  Venus, 
Isis-Fortuna,  Diana,  and  Apollo.  A  polychrome  statue  of  Aphrodite, 
bare  to  the  legs,   and    holding    an    apple    in    the    left   hand,  was   also 

discovered.* 

Lararia  were  often 
of  considerable  size ; 
they  were  then  called 
sacrariay\  and  occupied 
an  intermediate  position 
between  a  sacellum  and 
a  simple  niche.  In  the 
house  of  Epidius  Sabi- 
nus  a  large  stucco  altar 
fills  one  corner  of  the 
atrium.  On  its  two 
sides  are  painted  orna- 
ments of  chimaeras  and 
birds  in  light  tones  of 
colour.  The  short 
columns  rising  from  the 
base  support  a  pediment 

Larariuni  of  Epidius  Sabinus  (polychrome  stucco)  Ornamented  with   StUCCO 

mouldings  in  the  primary  colours,  blue,  red,  and  yellow,  which  were  always 
used  for  this  style  of  decoration. 

In  the  house  known  as  the  House  of  the  Diadumeni,  next  to  the 
House  of  Epidius  Sabinus,  there  is  a  similar  lararium,  which  bears  the 
inscription :    Genio  Marci  Nostri   et    Laribus    duo    Diadumeni    libertu 

*  Sec  Part  VI.  ui.  2. 

f  The  sacellum  always  contained  a  chapel  with  an  altar  erected  to  some  divinity,  while  the 
%acrarium  was  both  a  room  adjoining  the  temple,  where  the  sacred  ntensils  were  kept,  an4 
also  the  place  in  private  houses  consecrated  to  the  guardian  divinities. 


Another  altar  of  coloured 
stucco,  with  a  pediment, 
stands  opposite  a  venereum, 
in  a  house  not  far  from  the 
Triangular  Forum. 

Bronze  statuettes  of 
Hercules  and  Apollo,  -^scu- 
lapius  and  Mercury,  and  also 
of  the  secondary  deities, 
the  guardian  Lares,  were 
arranged  on  the  abacus  of 
the  lararium,  in  front  of  a 
painted  figure  of  Abundance 
surrounded  by  serpents 
(agaihodcemons).  Before  this 
gathering  of  the  gods  was  set 


iiiBii'm<n^iumMWiiU4m,r 


BttNue  Statoette  of  ApoUo 
(Naples  MuseniB) 


Larariuni  of  polychrome  stucco 

a   lamp   with   a    crescent-shaped    ornament,    the 
emblem  of  Diana  or  of  Isis. 

It  was  on  these  altars  that  the  young  free- 
born  Pompeian,  when  he  came  to  man's  estate, 
laid  the  purple  and  the  toga  prcetexia  of  his  child- 
hood, and  hung  up  his  golden  or  leathern  bulla 
on  the  cippus  that  represented  the  gods  of  the 
hearth.*  It  was  here  that  a  portion  of  the  food 
was  offered  to  the  gods  before  a  meal ;  and  on 
great  days,  on  the  feasts  known  as  laralia,  the 

*  Persius,  Sat.  V. 


ii6 


rOMPKI:    THE   CITY.    ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 


Uronze  Statue  of  .Ksculapius 
(Naples  Museum) 


Terra  cotla  Patera  for  Libations 
to  the  (Jods  of  the  Hearth 
(Ponipei  Museum) 


altars  were  hung  with  wreaths  and  the  doors  of  the 
lararia  left  wide  open.  Garlands  of  flowers  and  leaves 
were  twined.  The  gods  were  hidden  under  roses  and 
foliage,  and  after  the  rites  were  over  a  libation  was 
I)oured  upon  the  hearth.  At  the  close  of  Trimal- 
chio's  orgy,  three  slaves  dressed  in  white  tunics  entered 
the  hull ;  two  of  them  placed  on  the  table  the  Lans, 
who  had  golden  bulLc  hung  round  their  necks,  while 
the  third  went  round  the  table 
and  cried  with  a  loud  voice  the 
words:  '' Dii  propitUr  These 
gods,  according  to  the  Amphi- 
tryon, were  called  Ccrcion,  Felicion, 
and  Lucron. 

It  was  to  the  Lares  that  the  soldier  offered  a  portion  of  his  spoil  on 
his  return  from  war,  and  slaves  who  were  set  at  liberty  consecrated  their 
chains.  A  newly-married  wife,  when  she  first  entered  her  husband's  house, 
threw  a  piece  of  money  on  the  hearth  to  propitiate   her  new  household 

gods,  and  barren  women  placed  phallic 
votive  offerings  by  their  altars. 

When  the  season  of  the  Satur- 
nalia came  round,  the  images  of  the 
gods  were  covered  with  terra-cotta 
masks  to  pro- 
tect them  from 
the  insults  and  ribaldry  of  the  slaves. 

Cato  advises  that  every  evening,  before  going 
to  bed.  the  hearth  should  be  swept  clean  ;  and 
on  the  Kalends.  Ides,  and  Nones  of  every  month 
libations  were  made  on  the  hearth,  according  to 
each    man's   means.     Very   little  su(ificed-a  litde   "'^'S^i^l^^J^^r'^ 


Terracotta  Uraziers  of  a  Domestic  Altar 
fl'ompei  Museum; 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS  117 

salt,  some  fruit,  and  wine  was  enough  for  the  guardian  Lares.  It  was 
an  inexpensive  cult,  within  the  reach  of  all.  The  gods  were  also  honoured 
by  gestures  of  reverence,  accompanied  by  prayers ;   the  right  hand  was 


Sn.al.  6.o.«e  Hraucs       Small  Table  (Ancbbri.,  used  as  an  Altar.    (Naples  Museum,  Sn.U  brouze  Brazier 

laid  on  the  mouth    to   send  a   kiss,  or   the   thumb   was   kissed   and   the 
hand  e.xtended  horizontally  towards  the  divinity  invoked.*     When  passing 


Folding  Tripods  for  Oflferings  to  the  Gods  (Naples  Museum) 


by  a  temple  or  an  image  of  the  gods,  this  mark  of  reverence  was 
exacted  from  the  pagan.  The  thumb  was  also  placed  on  the  index- 
finger,  while  the-worshipper  half-opened  his  hand  and  bent  his  head  before 
the   idol.      The  head,   hands,  and  feet  of  the  images  were  covered  with 

•  This  custom  still  survives  in  Southern  Italy. 


ii8 


POMPEI:    THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


kisses,  a  practice  which  gradually  wore  away  parts  of  the  most  venerated 
statues.* 

Besides  these  lararia,  there  were  others  of  a  more  individual  and 
personal  character,  that  proclaimed  the  professions  of  their  owners.  Thus,  in 
the  Vico  di  Balbo,  there  is  a  curious  painting  showing  that  the  master  of 
^     ^y^  \.    i  I ' /7  H,,.^**"^       ^  ]  the  house  let  out  animals 

for  hire.  In  one  of  the 
walls  there  is  a  niche,  on 
the  back  of  which  is 
painted  a  woman  riding 
on  an  ass  and  carrying 
an  infant  in  swaddling- 
clothes.  The  woman 
is,  of  course,  Epona, 
the  patron  goddess  of 
1 1  muleteers,  though  at 
the  first  glance  she 
seems  to  have  been 
plagiarised  from  some 
picture  of  the  Flight 
into  Egypt.  Beneath 
the  niche  is  painted  a 

.\llar  dedicated  to  Epona  ( Painting  in  a  House  in  the  Vico  di  Balbu)  man      leading       an       aSS 

and  a  mule  ;  below  again  is  the  symbolic  serpent. 

Farther  on,  in  the  atrium  of  the  banker  Jucundus,  there  is  a  marble 
altar  with  a  bas-relief  representing  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  shaken  by  the 
earthquake  of  the  year  63  ;  a  bull  is  about  to  be  sacrificed  to  Venus  to 
propitiate  the  anger  of  the  gods. 

Another  house  in  Pompei,  known  as  the  Casa  del  Cetttenario,  contains 
a  lararium  which  has  part  of  its  raised  table  (the  abacus)  hollowed  out  in 
•  C/.,  in  our  own  times,  the  feet  of  the  sUtue  of  St.  Peter  at  Rome. 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


119 


Ihe  form  o{  2.  patera.  The  mural  decoration  of  the  larariuvi  contains  some 
curious  details.  Bacchus  is  represented  in  strange  attire,  wearing  a  long 
green  tunic  covered  with  bunches  of  black  grapes.  The  god  holds  in 
his  left    hand  a  thyrsus  wreathed  with  vine-branches  and  decorated  with 


Marble  Bas-relief  of  the  Lararium  of  Jucundus 

the  mitra ;  with  his  right  hand  he  pours  out  wine  from  a  cantharus  for  a 

panther  who  lies  at  his  feet*     In   the   background   is  a  high  mountain 

wooded  with  parasol  pines,  except  at  the  summit ;  and  at  the  foot  of  the 

mountain   are   trellises, 

propped  by  stakes,  on 

which       vines      are 

trained,  just  as  they  are 

grown    to-day    in    the 

country   round    Rome. 

This  mountain  may  be 

intended   for   Vesuvius 

before  the  eruption  of 

the    year    79.      The 

famous      wine      of      this  Altar  to  Fomax  (painting) 

district  is  now  known  by  the  name  of  Lacryma-Christi. 

Bacchus  is  here  the  God  of  the  Grape,  whose  blood  is  changed  into  wine, 
and  all  this  symbolism  seems  to  show  that  the  man  who  lived  in  the  Casa 
del  Centenario  was  the  owner  of  large  vineyards.  In  the  middle  of  the  pedi- 
ment over  the  lararium  is  an  owl,  the  symbol  of  Minerva,  patroness  of  fullers,  f 

•  The  panther,  as  the  most  fiery  of  animals,  was  sacred  to  Bacchus. 
t  See  Gazette  arch.  1880,  and  Niccolini. 


'»f 


lao 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


In  this  painting  we  can  trace  nearly  all  the  details  given  by  Strabo  and 
Plutarch,*  and  follow  the  main  outlines  of  Vesuvius,  the  greatest  change  in 
which  is  due  to  the  cone  of  ashes  now  on  the  mountain.  This  painting  is 
the  only  reliable  authority  we  have  for  the  original  shape  of  the  volcano.     " 

Two  other  lararia 
remain  to  be  noticed. 
One  was   found   in   a 
kitchen   placed    under 
the   protection   of  the 
goddess    Fornax,    the 
patroness  of  stoves  and 
ovens.      A    figure    of 
Abundance  is  here  sur- 
rounded by  a  hare,  a 
pig,  a  fish,  loaves,  &c., 
all    placed    under    the 
protection  of  the  god- 
dess to  ensure  success 
in   cooking :    it  would 
seem    that    the    com- 
plaisant    Lares    even 
presided  over  the  din- 
ners of  their  proUg^s! 
The  other  altar  was  discovered  in   1895  in  the  House  of  the  Vettii. 
one  of  the  richest  houses  in  Pompei.     It  is  covered  with  stucco  ornaments  in 
red,  blue,  and  yellow  ;  on  the  pediment  are  sculptured  and  painted  ^patera  / 
the  cranium  of  an  ox,  and  the  sacrificial  knife.     The  central  figure  in  the 
picture  is  the  genius  of  the  master  of  the  house,  wearing  a  toga,  his  head 
veiled  like  that  of  a  priest  sacrificing  a  victim.     He  holds  the  patera  and  the 
acerra ;  on  either  side  of  him  stand  the  Lares  pociliatores.     Beneath  them 

*  See  Part  I. 


Lararium  dedicated  to  Bacchus.     Painting  in  the  Casa  del  Centenario 

(Naples  Museum) 


^mmaSSimk. 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


121 


are  represented  the  genius  loci  and  the  e.^^  given  as  an  offering.  From 
the  attributes  on  the  pediment  and  the  priestly  aspect  of  the  central  figure, 
it  seems  possible  that  the 


Vettii    intended    some 
allusion  to  the  rites  of  the 
taurobolcs   (sacrifice   of  a 
bull),  instituted  in  honour 
of  Cybele   and  her  lover 
Atys.     The  most  ancient 
known  inscription  referring 
to  these  sacrifices  is  dated 
133  A. D.     It  was  found  in 
the  outskirts  of  Naples,  and 
records   that    "a  woman, 
Herennia   Fortunata,  had, 
accomplished,   for   the 
second  time,  the  sacrifice 
of   the   taiiroboli   by   the 
ministrations  of  the  priest 

Ti.  Claudius."  *  Lararium  of  the  House  of  the  Vettii  (Stucco  and  Painting) 

Under  Hadrian  these  rites  were  extensively  practised,  and  they  had 
been  introduced  in  Rome  as  eariy  as  Pompey's  time.  We  may  conjecture 
that  the  custom,  imported  from  the  East  with  the  cult  of  Mithra,  gained 
ground  at  an  eariy  date  in  Campania,  but  hitherto  no  authentic  proof  of 
this  has  been  found  in  Pompei. 


•  Boissier,  Im  Religion  romaine. 


XI 


CHRISTIANITY  AT   POMPEI— THE  AUREOLES  OF   DIVINITIES  AND  THE 
WINGS  OF  GENII— THE   FASCINUM— THE   EVIL   EVE— CHARMS   AND 

AMULETS— SACRED  TREES 


HAD  Christianity  found  its  way  to  Pompei  ?  It  is  diflficult  to  say. 
It  is  possible  that  there  were  Christians  in  the  city,  since  they 
were  numerous  enough  in   Rome  to  be  tortured  and  thrown  to 

i 

wild  beasts  in  the  amphitheatre ;  and  as  St.  Paul  landed  at  Puteoli,  a  town 
not  far  from  Pompei,  and  remained  there  seven  days,  the  doctrine  of  peace 
and  charity  may  well  have  travelled  to  the  other  side  of  the  Bay.  The 
archaeologist  De  Rossi  quotes  the  following  electoral  inscription  found  at 
Pompei : 

CVSPIVM  •  PANSAM 

^D  •  FABIVS  •  EVPOR  •  PRINCEPS  • 

LIBERTINORVM  = 

/.<!.,  "  Fabius  Eupor,  prince  of  the  freedmen,  votes  for  Cuspius  Pansa  as  adile." 

De  Rossit  proves  that  the  "freedmen"  of  this  inscription  were 
members  of  the  Jewish  Synagogue  which  bore  this  name,  and  which  is 
mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  as  the  Synagoga  qucp  appeliatiir 
libcrtinorutu.  He  is  also  of  opinion  that  Christianity  became  known  at 
Pompei  by  means  of  the  Jews,  and  EggerJ  mentions  some  Semitic  graffiti 
found  on  the  columns  of  the  Forum.  Moreover,  some  allusions  to  passages 
in  the  Bible  have  been  discovered  :  the  words  Sodoma  and  Goniora  written 


•  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  117. 


f  J.  B.  De  Rossi,  DulUtino  di  Anheologica  cristiana,  1864. 
I  Journal  cies  Savants,  1881. 


THE   TOMBS,    THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


123 


on  a  wall,   and  parodies  of  the  Judgment  of  Solomon  and  the  Story  of 
Jonah  (see  Part  VI.). 

Two   inscriptions  written    in   charcoal   have  been   found  at    Pompei. 
One  of  these,  which  is  now  almost  completely  effaced,  was  found  in   1862 


Divinities  with  blue  Aureoles  (Painting  in  the  Ciisa  di  Apollo) 

on  the  walls  of  a  room  in  the  Street  of  Stabiai,  and  was  read  and  tran- 
scribed by  Fiorelli,  Minervini,  and  Kiessling : 

Audivi  Christianas 
Savos  olores* 
De  Rossi  sees  in  this  inscription  an  allusion  to  the  psalms  sung  by  the 
Christians  on   their  way  to  martyrdom,  and  a  comparison  of  their  voices 
with  the  death-song  of  the  swan. 

The  other  inscription  is  very  imperfect ;  it  was  written  on  a  white- 
washed wall  in  the  street  of  the  Balcone  pensile. 

It  is  curious  to  note  how  the  Christians,  in  the  exercise  of  their  rites, 

*  See  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  679. 


124 


POMI'EI:   THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


borrowed  all  that  could 
be  reconciled  with  their 
own  dogmas  and  moral 
code  from  the  Pagans. 
The  various  elements 
of  ritual  are  always 
identical  in  the  two 
\  religions — lustral 
'  water,  purifying  ablu- 
tions, priestly  vest- 
ments, aspersions  of 
water,  censers,  fasts,  ab- 
stinences, processions, 

Hercules  and  Auge  (PainUng  in  the  House  of  the  Vettii)  and     SO    On.        Even    in 

the  Catacombs  at  Rome  '"^(^O^  --^(^^ 
the  Christian  paintings  are 
often  at  first  a  mere  imita- 
tion of  Pagan  originals,  and 
the  Good  Shepherd  is  but 
a  transformed  Orpheus.* 
Religious  beliefs  have 
always  been  expressed  in  .  -  '  >^  A/,  ,/,  ,'/  .''^'  }'\''S^^V.5 
symbols,  and  as  the  object                            -""^/T"  — ---^  ^^H^^^ 

of  all  religions  is  the  same  "   "**  "^        ^^Z  •  yf/ 

—to   raise    the    soul    to  the       .\riadne  guarded  by  a  Genius  (PaintinTiTIhouse  in  the  VicodiTesn.o) 

Creator — anthropomorphic  analogies  necessarily  arose. 

Aureoles  and  nimbi  were  borrowed  from  representations  of  the  gods 
in  Pagan  artf    At  Pompei  there  are  many  paintings  where  Jupiter,  Apollo, 

<*  See  Part  VI.     Painting  representing  Orpheus. 

\  The  discs  that  encircle  the  heads  of  certain  ancient  statues  were  only  used  to  protect  them 
from  birds.  A  synibolic  meaning  was  gradually  attached  to  this  protecUve  disc,  which  became  a 
nimbus  or  aureole,  an  emblem  of  divinity. 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS  125 


Diana,  and  Venus  have  their  heads  encircled  with  a  blue  or  yellow  aureole, 

as  a  sign  of  their  divine    nature  and  their  sojourn  in  the  land  of  light. 

Jupiter  has  the  largest  aureole,  and  rays  of  light 

stream  from  the  head  of  Apollo  ;  Diana  wears 

an   aureole,    but   more   frequently   a   crescent. 

Even  the  genii  have  this  ornamental  disc,  but 

it  is  blue  in  colour,  as  in  a  painting  in  the  House 

of  the  Vettii  representing  a  drunken  Hercules 

and  Auge ;  a  genius  with  outspread  wings  and 

an  angel's  face  appears  to  act  as  a  guardian 

spirit. 

The  wings  of  these  genii  were  afterwards 
given  to  those  guardian  spirits  called  by  the 
Christians  "guardian  angels."    Another  painting 

,  A     •     t  1  111  11  Bronre  Victory  of  Pompei  (Naples 

shows  Ariadne  deserted  and  asleep  under  the  Museum) 

protection  of  a  winged  genius  who  recalls  the  angels  of  Christian  art,  and 
probably  represents  the  genius  albus  of  Horace — the  Angel  of  Life  who 
(^'7^  xKs  disputes  the  possession  of  men  with  the  genius 

ater,  the  Angel  of  Death.*  The  wings  of 
the  genii  give  them  a  somewhat  less  material 
appearance  and  symbolise  their  swift  activity 
and  their  vigilance  in  the  accomplishment  of 
the  tasks  assigned  them  by  the  gods,  from 
whom  they  are  an  emanation.  "They 
follow  man  wheresoever  he  goes,  to  guard 
him :  they  are  the  close  companions  of  his 
life  and  the  rulers  of  his  destiny."  f 

Mercury,   the   messenger   of  the   gods, 
had  small  wings  bound  on  his  pilos  and  his  buskins,  and  Victory  hovers 
over  armies  with  wings  that  are  an  emblem  of  her  inconstancy.     For  this 
*  Martha,  ArchiologU ctrusque.     L.  H.  May.  f  Horace,  £^.  II.  z. 


Victory  (Painting  in  the  Casa  di 
Castore  c  Polluoe) 


126 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE  VARIOUS   CULTS  127 


reason  the  Greeks  preferred  her  wingless,  so  that  she  could  not  escape  them. 
Eros  (Love),  Eris  (Discord),  and  Phobos  (Fear),  the  personified  passions 
of  men,  were  also  winged,  to  symbolise  their  swift  and  certain  influence.* 
Iris,  the  messenger,  the  personification  of  the  rainbow,  is  also  represented 
at  Pompei  in  the  form  of  a  young  girl,  winged,  and  wearing  a  blue  aureole. 
All  these  personifications  had  their  origin  in  the  timidity  of  humanity 
and  the  natural  desire  for  protection.  It  was  generally  believed  that  the 
lives  of  men  were  beset  by  dangers  that  an  evil  genius  placed  in  their 
paths;   and  the   ills   of  life  were   thus   multiplied  by  man  himself,   who 


.\mulets  against  the  Evil  Eye  (Naples  Museum) 

peopled  e.xistence  with  chima^ras  bent  on  his  destruction.  Fascination  was 
a  crowning  source  of  terror.  The  Fascinum  was  an  influence  emanating 
from  a  person  either  deliberately  or  unconsciously,  and  is  essentially  the 
same  as  the  Italian  jettatura.  There  were  certain  people  who  were  found 
to  bring  misfortune  on  those  around  them  and  to  "cross"  events  in  which 
they  had  taken  a  part.  This  mysterious  influence  was  called  by  many 
names,  and  the  evil  eye  was  one  of  the  most  dangerous  of  its  manifes- 
tations. It  acted  like  a  spell  cast  on  a  person  who  was  unable  to  defend 
himself  from  the  evil  influence  that  dominated  him.  The  evil  eye  was  also 
attributed  to  insects.  Among  the  Romans  the  praying  mantis  was 
supposed  to  bewitch  men,  while  a  figure  representing  the  insect  had  power 
to  ward  off  the  evil  eye.  At  the  present  day  the  ladybird  is  supposed  to 
bring  good  fortune,  like  the  spider  seen  in  the  evening,  which  is  as  lucky 
as  the  spider  seen  in  the  morning  is  disastrous. 

All   evil   spirits,    however,  were   exorcised   by  an  equivocal   gesture 
preserved  in  bronze  hands  found  in  Pompei.      This  was  what  was  called 

•  Max  Collignon,  Mythologic  figurU.    L.  H.  May. 


making  the  fig :  the  right  hand  was  shut,  the  thumb  inserted  between  the 
first  and  second  finger,  and  the  whole  hand  pointed  in  the  direction  of 
the  danger. 

Other  conventional  signs  with  the  fingers  produced  the  same  effect. 
A  token  representing  a  hand  shows  a  particular  gesture  used  to  exorcise 
the  evil  eye  and  preserve  the  owner  of  the  amulet.  A  great  number 
of  amulets  have  been  found  at  Pompei,  generally  accompanied  by  phallic 
tokens  of  bronze,  glass,  lapis-lazuli,  and  amber.*     Besides  these  emblems 


% 


Small  Bells  (Naples  Museum) 

of  a  licentious  character,  there  were  others  used  on  the  signs  of  shops  at 
Pompei,  to  ward  off  the  evil  eye ;  for  instance,  the  bakehouse  of  Felicity, 
as  it  is  called,  was  safe  from  the  fascinum ;  f  the  figure  of  a  man  stoopino- 
in  a  significant  attitude  exorcised  the  evil  spirit,  and  men  spat  upon  their 
breasts,  or  on  the  breasts  of  others,  to  terrify  and  insult  an  enemy  with  the 
evil  eye.  An  eye  was  also  frequently  painted  or  carved  on  various  objects 
to  ward  off  hostile  glances. 

Bells  were  also  used  as  a  means  of  protection,  and  are  frequently 
found  attached  to  phalli.  They  were  rung  in  Bacchic  and  Corybantic 
religious  ceremonies,  and  in  the  rites  of  the  Cabeiri.J     Animals  wore  bells, 

•  Magic  properties  were  attributed  to  coral  and  amber  in  antiquity.  Children  wore  amulets 
of  these  substances  round  their  necks,  and  there  is  a  collection  of  them  at  the  Naples  Museum.  At 
the  present  day,  in  Southern  Italy,  the  teeth  of  anim.ils  or  children,  branches  of  coral,  death's- 
heads,  hands,  and  dwarfs  of  mothor-of-ix;arl  are  amulets  against  the  jettatura. 

t  See  Part  IV.  J  Roux  et  Barre,  Hcrculanum  et  Pompei. 


138 


POMPEI:    THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


^^,rvmj^ 


and  they  were  used  to  protect  herds  of  cattle.     Bells  were  rung  during  the 
eclipses   of  the   moon,    or  when   criminals  were   led   to   execution ;   they 

were  also  hung  up  on  the  doors  of  brothels,  and 

were  used  in  the  house,  to  give  notice  of  meals 

and  to  summon  slaves. 

Among   the   various   curiosities   of   religion 

and   superstition  in    Pompei  we  must   not   omit 

to    mention     some 
sm.aii  Bells  (Museun.  of  Pompei)     pajntings   of  a  pecu- 
liar character,  representing  trees  decorated  by 
emblems  used  in  religious  rites. 

The  villages  of  the  ancients  had  not 
temples  like  the  towns,  and,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  certain  sanctuaries  that  were  held  in 
special  veneration,  and  built  on  some  sacred 

spot  chosen    by  the    Cfods,  the    rustic   population    R"s«'cAltar  and  sacred  Tree  (Painting  in 
'  °  ^    ^  the  Naples  Museum) 

only  possessed  shrines  which  stood 
at  the  cross-roads  where  there  was 
a  sacred  tree.  These  shrines  were 
frequently  dedicated  to  Diana  Trivia, 
to  whom  tapers  were  brought  as 
offerings.*  Pliny  tells  us  that  trees 
must  have  been  men's  first  temples, 
as  stones  were  their  first  gods,  and 
certain  plants,  fruits,  or  trees  were 
sacred  to  each  divinity.  The  oak 
was  Jove's  tree,  the  laurel  was  sacred 
to  Apollo,  the  olive-tree  to  Minerva, 
the  myrtle  to  Venus,  the  poplar  to 
Hercules,  and  so  on.      Certain  trees 

*  Propertius  II.  2. 


Altar  to  Bacchus  and  Sacred  Tree  (Painting  in  the 
Naples  Museum) 


THE   TOMBS,   THE   TEMPLES   AND   THE   VARIOUS   CULTS 


129 


were  endowed  with  special  virtues  ;  the  laurel  was  the  most  sacred,  for  it 
was  used  in  lustral  ablutions,  and  was  spared  by  Jove  himself. 

Near  these  sacred  trees  there  sometimes  stood  a  column,  a  diminutive 
of  the  small  shrine  in  the  form  of  a  temple  in  which  the  statue  of  the  god 
was  placed.  Votive  offerings,  pictures,  garlands,  fillets  and  gifts  were 
hung  on  the  branches  of  the  tree  as  on  the  walls  of  a  temple.  Trees  that 
were  stiuck  by  lightning  were  also  the  object  of  special  veneration,  and  a 
puteal  was  built  to  protect  the  spot  where  one  of  these  stood.  The  Pagan 
could  therefore  satisfy  his  religious  needs  at  every  turn.  We  have  seen 
that  he  had  no  lack  of  protectors. 


PART  III 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS  AND   RECREATIONS  OF   POMPEI 


II 

il 


The  Basilica 


I 


THE   BASILICA 

AS  yet  we  have  said  nothing  of  the  most  important  building  in  the 
Pompeian  Forum. 

The  Basilica,  a  covered  hall,  where  men  of  business  took  refuge 
in  bad  weather,  was  a  roofed  forum  where  matters  of  public  interest  were 
debated ;  it  also  served  as  a  town  hall  where  the  citizens  of  Pompei 
assembled,  and  where  the  duumvirs  administered  justice  in  the  name  of 
the  Municipality,  the  Republic,  or  the  Emperor.  The  Basilica  was  in 
existence  in  the  year  676  after  the  founding  of  Rome  (187  B.C.)  according 
to  the  date  inscribed  on  one  of  its  walls.  It  had  five  entrances,  near  one 
of  which  the  word  bassilica  is  cut  with  a  pointed  instrument. 

The  portico  which  gives  access  to  the  building  on  the  side  towards  the 
Forum  is  the  most  ancient,  to  judge  by  the  well-worn  tufa  of  the  flight  of 
steps,  once  decorated  with  statues,  the  marble  pedestals  of  which  still 
remain. 

The  Basilica  was  divided  into  three  aisles,  and  the  walls  on  each  side 
had  large  openings  ornamented  with  columns.  The  great  pillars  that 
supported   the   roof  were   about  218  feet  high,  and  were  built  of  brick^ 


'ti! 


»34 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND    ART 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   AND   RECREATIONS   OF   POMPEI 


135 


III 
II 


li 


specially  prepared,  and  covered  with  stucco.  Under  the  porticoes  stood 
terms  surmounted  by  marble  busts,  and  the  walls  were  decorated  with 
polychrome  stucco-work  imitating  carved  ornament  in  relief.  At  the  end 
of  the  Basilica  was  the  tribunal  where  the  majjistrates  sat— a  sta^^e  built 
on  a  solid  block  of  masonr)\  It  was  reached  by  a  wooden  stair  no  longer 
in  existence.  In  front  of  the  tribunal  is  a  pedestal,  on  which  a  statue  of 
gilded  bronze  once  stood. 

The  walls  of  this  much-frequented  building  received  the  confidences  of 
the  idlers  and  habituh  of  the  place.  Some  of  these  graffiti  have  been 
preserved  in  the  Naples  Museum  ;  for  instance,  this  sentence :  "  Lucrio  ct 
sains  hicfitcrunr  ("This  is  the  haunt  of  the  idle  and  of  the  self-seeking"),  and 
":  Quod  pretutm  legi?"  an  inscription  traced  by  one  who  had  apparently 
little  faith  in  the  law.  Lines  of  Ovid,  Virgil,  and  Propertius  are  often 
reproduced  with  slight  variations : 

"  Quid pote  tan  durum  saxso  aut  qtiid  mollius  undo,  ? 
Dura  tanim  molli  saxsa  cavantur  aqua" — Ovin.* 
Then  this  distich  of  Propertius,  a  good  deal  defaced  : 

'   "  Quisquis  aniator  erit  Scythia;  licet  ambulet  oris  ; 
Nemo  adeo  est  feriat  barbarus  esse  voUtr\ 

Many  other  inscriptions  are  scratched  on  the  walls ;  lovers'  vows  are 
traced  there,  and  the  jests  of  a  sot  are  found  side  by  side  with  the  exclama- 
tions of  an  epicure,  confronting  the  maxims  of  a  philosopher.  The  whole 
life  of  the  city  lies  before  us,  and  a  few  lines  on  the  walls  tell  us  the  secrets 
of  Pompei  and  reveal  the  intimate  life  of  a  vanished  age.J 

These  graffiti  on  the  walls  of  the  Basilica  became  so  numerous  that 
some  Pompeian  wrote  this  phrase : 

''  Admiror,  O  paries,  te  non  cecidisse  ruinis 
Qui  tot  script  or  um  tcedia  sus  tineas."  % 


("  I  am  surprised,  O  wall,  that  you  have  not  fallen  down  under  the 
burden  of  so  many  tedious  writers.") 

Another  building,  known  as  the  Curia,  in  the  south  part  of  the  Forum, 
is  of  brick,  and  dates  from  the  Roman  period.  It  consists  of  three  halls, 
and  was  used  by  the  asdiles,  duumvirs,  and  municipal  councillors.  Not  far 
from  the  Curia  is  the  Comitiutn,  the  voting-place  during  the  elections. 


*  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  1895. 
\  See.  in  Part  IV.,  the  various  graffiti  and  inscriptions. 


f  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  1950. 
§  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  1904. 


\i 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   AND   RECREATIONS   OF   POMPEI 


137 


II 


THE  FORUM 

THE  buildings  round  the  Forum  do  not  all  open  immediately  on  to  the 
public  square,  for  this  was  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  a  colonnade, 
forming  a  portico  of  the  Roman  Doric  order,  surmounted  by  a  second 
portico  of  Ionic  columns.  No  trace  of  this  upper  gallery  now  exists,  though  in 
the  entablature,  which  still  remains  in  places,  we  may  see  the  gaps  left  by  the 
beams  of  the  flooring  of  the  upper  storey,  which  was  reached  by  narrow  stairs. 
There  were  seven  entrances  to  the  Forum,  closed  by  posts  and 
gratings.  On  the  paved  floor  stood  numerous  pedestals  for  the  statues 
of  famous  men.  Twenty-two  of  these  pedestals  are  still  in  existence,  and 
five  of  them  bear  inscriptions  in  honour  of  Pompeian  magistrates  and  of 
members  of  the  imperial  family  :  Augustus,  Claudius,  Agrippina,  Nero,  and 
Caligula. 

Before  the  time  of  Augustus  the  civil  Forum*  was  only  a  square  for 
markets,  games,  and  public  meetings,  but  the  erection  of  new  buildings 
brought  about  certain  changes,  and  the  original  portico  was  reduced  to  a 
row  of  columns.  It  was  in  the  Forum  that  the  candidates  for  the 
municipal  elections  and  the  events  of  the  day  were  discussed,  and  that 
hot  debates  took  place  in  favour  of  the  municipality,  always  jealous  of  its 
independence.  It  was  the  enclosure  where  the  populace  shouted  and 
manifested,  and  where  orators  stirred  up  the  passions  of  the  crowd  from 
the  puhitum  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter.     Entertainments  were  also  given 

*  FiorellL 


in  the  Forum,  when  illuminations,  paid  for  by  the  magistrates,  lit  up  the 
noisy  rejoicings  of  the  mob,  acclaiming  the  victor  of  the  circus. 

At  the  funeral  of  a  citizen  who  had  earned  the  gratitude  of  the  city 
the  procession  passed  through  the  Forum  before  the  last  halt  at  the 
tomb.  This  supreme  honour  was  only  granted  to  those  whose  statues  were 
afterwards  to  be  erected  in  the  very  heart  of  the  city. 


Colonnade  of  the  Forum 


In  front  of  the  viaccllum,  the  Forum  is  lined  with  little  stalls,  which 
must  have  been  let  at  a  high  rent.  Money  changers,  jewellers,  and  bankers 
carried  on  business  under  the  portico,  where  strolling  vendors,  selling 
refreshments  and  the  trifles  of  the  hour,  importuned  the  forcnscs,  the 
loungers  and  habitues  of  this  crowded  centre  of  the  city.  Notices  of 
entertainments  were  posted  up  there,  as  we  see  in  a  picture  in  the  Naples 
Museum,  just  as  advertisements  and  inscriptions  arrested  the  passers  by  on 
the  white  stuccoed  walls  of  the  Building  of  Eumachia. 


>il 


138 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   AND    RECREATIONS   OF   POMPEI 


139 


Shops,  large  public  lafrintr  draining  into  the  sewer,  a  prison,  and  a 
standard  of  meeisures  were  situated  in  this  Forum,  on  the  same  side  as  the 


The  Forum 

Temple  of  Apollo.    As  to  the  public  treasury,  the  ^rariunty  it  is  supposed 

to  have  been  situated 
beneath  the  podium  of 
the  Temple  of  Jupiter.* 

This  temple  is 
flanked  by  two  triumphal 
arches.  That  on  the 
right,  the  more  impor- 
tant, was  erected  to  the 
memory  of  Tiberius  ;  the 
bronze  statue  of  the  Em- 
peror that  once  crowned 

Standard  of  Mc.isures(MeDsa  ponderaria)  it    haS     been     disCOVCrcd. 

Another  arch,  placed  in  the  axis  of  this,   and  formerly  surmounted  by  a 

•  Overbcck-Mau. 


Statue  of  Caligula,  enframes  the  mountain  of  Vesuvius  in  its  slender  span. 
The  marble  casing  of  this  arch  has  almost  entirely  disappeared,  and  its 
core  of  brickwork  shows  golden  in  the  glowing  sunlight. 

The  picture  is  simple  yet  grandiose  in  its  beauty  in  springtime, 
when  the  pure  fresh  air  wreathes  the  outline  of  the  volcano  with  a  veil  of 
transparent  azure.  But  when  the  rains  of  autumn  darken  Vesuvius  and 
saturate  its  ashes,   the   heavy   mass  of  the   mountain   seems  to  advance 


Arch  of  Tiberius  (?) 

threateningly  against  the  city,  overpowering  the  delicate  harmonies  of  its 
rose-coloured  bricks  and  grey  skies ;  while  the  sirocco  chases  from  the 
mountain-crest  the  low  white  clouds  of  smoke  that  seem  to  crawl  along  it 
when  undisturbed.  Towards  evening,  again,  when  the  sky  is  swept  clean 
by  the  breeze  and  the  setting  sun  draws  long  shadows  in  the  city, 
Pompei  wraps  herself  in  half  tones  as  in  a  veil. 

At  the  sound  of  a  distant  bell  all  the  visitors  and  tourists  leave  the 
city,   and    in   privileged   solitude  we  may  linger  and  prolong  the  dream. 


140 


POMPEI  :   THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE    AND   ART 


The  hot  air 
rises  from  the 
walls  and  the 
ground  and 
^  passes  by  in 
gusts,  like 
warm  caresses; 
the  city  takes 
on  a  mystic 
beauty,  its  faint 
outlines  dimly 
seen  in  the 
gathering 
gloom.  A  new 
Pompei  seems 
to  *'  rise  like  an 

The  Arch  of  the  Street  of  Mercury 

exhalation "  ;  the  houses  fill  out ; 
the  sense  of  ruin  passes  away  ; 
ghostly  silhouettes  arise;  the  illusion 
is  startling,  and  the  city  seems  to 
live  again  as  it  dies  into  the  night. 

But  we  must  go,  or  we  shall 
lose  our  way  in  this  labyrinth  of 
streets.  The  cadenced  beat  of  our 
footsteps  on  the  lava  flagstones 
echoes  in  the  sonorous  alleys  ;  the 
spell  of  the  place  and  hour  is  upon 
us,  and,  passing  by  the  silent  houses, 

^  Bronze  Statue  ofTiberius(?)  (Naples  Mmeiun) 

we  carry  away  with  us  a  gleam  from  the  inextinguishable  past. 


Ill 


THE   BATHS  OF  THE   FORUM-STRIGILS  AND   UNGUENTS-DEPILATION 

LET  US  return  to  the  beneficent  sunshine  and  the  delights  it 
engendered  at  Pompei.  The  effeminate  Pompeian,  like  every  true 
Campanian,  enjoyed  to  the  full  all  the  resources  of  a  city  of 
pleasure.  The  important  part  played  by 
baths  in  Roman  civilisation  is  well  known. 
Pompei  seems  to  have  been  well  provided 
in  this  respect,  and  the  baths  that  have  been 
discovered — four  tfurmce — bear  witness  to 
the  utmost  refinement  and  luxury. 

The  baths  were  often  the  meeting-place 
of  the  idle  and  the  pastime  of  libertines; 
indeed,  hydropathy  often  proved  harmful 
to  the  profligates  who  frequented  them  in 
search  of  a  remedy  after  their  excesses,  and 
sudden  death  in  the  thermcc  from  congestion 
was  no  unusual  end  to  a  life  of  dissipation. 
Suppers  were  occasionally  taken  at  the 
baths,  and  various  amusements  gave  additional  attraction  to  these  resorts, 
where  unceremonious  enjoyment  was  the  order  of  the  day. 

The  ancients  were  in  the  habit  of  bathing  immediately  after  a  meal, 
a  dangerous  custom  in  many  cases.    Thus  Juvenal*  says  :  "A  swift  punish- 

'•=  Juvenal,  Sai.  I. 


A  Bell  (Naples  Museum) 


14* 


POMPEI  :   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS    AND    RECREATIONS    OF   POMPEI 


«43 


ment  follows  hard  on  your  gluttony,  when,  gorged  with  food,  your  stomach 
loaded  with  an  undigested  peacock,  you  hasten  from  the  table  to  throw  off 
your  clothes  and  plunge  into  the  bath." 

A  small  sum,  a  qitadrans,  was  paid  for  entrance  to  the  baths,  as 
Horace  tells  us :  *'  Proud  as  a  king,  you  will  go  and  bathe  for  a  farthing."* 
Every  one  brought  their  own  utensils  for  use  in  the  thernue — their  strigils, 
towels,  and  ungitentaria. 


The  next  room  was  the  tepidarium.     It  has  an  arched  roof,  ornamented 


:^\-.  ^* 


jr 


The  Tepidarium  of  the  Baths  of  ihe  Forum 

The  baths  of  the  Forum,  inaugurated  about  the  year  5  a.d.,  were 
reached  by  a  corridor  where  a  great  number  of  lamps  were  found, 
which  leads  us  to  suppose  that  the  Pompeians  habitually  bathed  in  the 
evening  as  well  as  in  the  daytime.  At  sunrise  a  bell  announced  that  the 
baths  were  open,  but  the  fashionable  hour  was  later  in  the  day. 

The  apodytcrhtm  was  the  room  where  the  bathers  undressed,  and  left 
their  clothes  and  perfumes  in  recessed  cupboards  in  the  walls,  to  prevent 
them  from  being  stolen.  The  mode  of  bathing  varied  according  to  the 
time  of  year  and  individual  taste,  but  the  hot  bath  was  taken  before  the 
cold,  which  was  cooled  with  snow  in  summer. 

Horace,  Book  L  Sat.  IH. 


TTie  Caldarium  of  the  a-itlis  of  the  Forum 

with  delicate  stucco-work,  where  Loves,  chima.Tas,  and  birds  stand  out  in 
relief  against  a  red  and  blue  background, 
with  a  very  fresh  and  brilliant  effect. 
The  walls  are  red,  and  these,  too,  contain 
cupboards  surmounted  by  a  cornice  rest- 
ing on  terra-cotta  Atlantes.  Arabesques, 
mouldings,  and  mosaics  give  a  peculiarly 
rich  effect  to  this  room.  It  has  also  a 
bronze  brazier,  on  which  is  represented  a 
small  cow,  in  allusion  to  the  name  of  the 
donor,  the  Pompeian  Nisidius  Vaccula ; 
bronze  seats  with  cow's  feet  are  placed 
round  the  brazier,  where  the  bathers  sat  to 
warm  themselves.  As  this  tepidarmm 
was  also  used  as  an  apodytcriuru,  it  is  very 
probable  that  it  was  the  favourite  haunt 

of    the    idlers    of    the     city     in     the     winter,       The  instruments  of  a  Tractator  {Naples  Museum) 


■1 


144 


POMPEI:   THE  CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


and  that  they  came  there  to  stroll  and  talk  in  the  warm 
atmosphere,  out  of  the  wind. 

The  caldarium  or  sudatorium,  where  the  walls  are 
hollow,  as  may  be  seen  in  one  of  our  drawings,  served 
to  store  the  warm  air  from  the  heating  apparatus,  and 
the  floor  is  built  on  the  same  system,  and  raised  above 
the  ground.  At  the  end  of  the  hall  there  is  a  large 
marble  basin,  the  labrum,  where  the  bathers  dipped  their 
head  and  hands  in  cold  water  to  refresh  themselves. 

The  frigidariuni,  which  has  a  glazed  window  to 
keep  away  draughts,  is  merely  a  rotunda,  in  the  centre 
of  which  is  a  deep  piscina,  filled  by  means  of  a  brass 
spout. 

After  the  bath,  the  tractator  came  to  rub  and  chafe 
s.rigiis,!^I^iuseum)     the  bathers.   and  strigils,  the  best  of  which  came  from 


Various  Utensils  in  use  in  tlie  Baths  (uHguemiaria,  alabaUra,  &c.)  (Naples  Museum) 

Pergamum,  were  used   to   scrape   away   the   sweat   and    render   the   skin 
soft  and  smooth.     "  A   man  who  knows  how  to  use  the  strigils,"  writes 


1!^".--'>'in.- 


«,  .^mv  .^r...  Tf7  Jut  ■-  ■■,     rf;. 


i\ 


'  1 


'f 


«1 


J' 


•■?' 


»ill 


•r 


,,,,« 


?,    n:5\ 


1 


PL.   V 


Ik* 

\ 

1    /'^ 

^ 

L-..       ._:.^.      ■..._ 

,,••-,  ...-. ' '-      ..    . 

\  .T-Tf itfrtiia'  i- " "    ••  '-fii^- ' .  -,.;-.'ifc— ^aailiB 

I      A    NAVAL    EXGACJKMKNT-   2.    VI.NTACiK   -3.    WIXE 

(pAIMTrNGS     I^      TIIF     11 U  U  S  E      OF     THE     VETTIl) 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   AND   RECREATIONS   OF   POMPEI 


'45 


Martial,  "  saves  in  the  washing  of  his  h'nen."  Unguents  were  afterwards 
sprinkled  drop  by  drop  from  the  alabaslruni ;  the  body  was  lightly  rubbed 
with  swansdown,  and  together  with  the  hair  and  the  clothes  of  the  bather, 
scented  with  oriental  nard.  Depilation  was  also  practised  at  the  thermcc, 
and  took  up  a  considerable  time.  A  paste  composed  of  arsenic  and 
slaked  lime  was  applied  to  the  whole  of  the  body,  after  which  the  razor 
and  pumice-stone  were  used.  The  aiipi/i,  of  the  corporation  of  barbers, 
were  skin  doctors  :  their  reputation  for  gossip  was  so  great,  that  a  client, 
on  being  asked  by  one  of  them  how  he  wished  his  hair  removed,  answered, 
"  In  silence!" 


/ 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   AND   RECREATIONS   OF   POMPEI 


147 


? 


with  stucco  ornaments  in  relief,  representing  a  Cupid,  a  Bacchante,  a  hedge- 


k 


I 


IV 


THE  STABIAN   THERM.E   AND  THE   PAL.ESTRA 

THE  Other  i/urma  in  Pompei,  known  as  the  Ba//ts  of  Stab ue,  were 
originally   founded   by   the   Oscans.     They   are    richly   decorated, 
though  not  so  richly  as  the  baths  of  the  Forum,  and  have  several 
annexes.      They  are  entered  by  a  palccstra  with  a  sun-dial,  on  which   is 

cut  an  Oscan  inscription  to  the  effect  that  the 
quaestor  Atinius,  son  of  Marius,  had  caused  it 
to  be  erected  in  obedience  to  a  decree  of  the 
Assembly,  and  that  before  Augustus'  reign  the  same 
magistrate  had  restored  the  baths  with  revenues 
drawn  from  fines. 

The  Sun-dial  of  the  subian Therm*  Xhe  building  was  embellished  under  the  duum- 
virs Caius  Vulius  and  Publius  Aninius,  and  after  the  earthquake  of  the 
year  63  it  was  enlarged  and  divided  into  two  parts,  each  of  which  had  a 
separate  entrance,  though  the  smaller  portion  communicated  with  the 
palcestra  of  the  larger  baths,  and  the  same  heating  apparatus  was  used 
for  both.  Many  writers  suppose  that  the  smaller  baths  were  reserved  for 
women,  but  in  Pompei,  where  manners  were  lax,  men  and  women  bathed 
in  common,  and  the  smaller  baths  may  have  been  reserved  for  the  lower 
orders.  It  was  not  until  the  reign  of  Hadrian  that  the  separation  of  the 
sexes  was  ordered  as  a  means  towards  the  revival  of  ancient  rules  and 
a  stricter  morality. 

The  main  building  of  the  therma  is  reached  by  a  vestibule,  decorated 


The  Apodyterium  of  the  Baths  of  Stabiac 

hog,  a  dolphin,  and  a  swan  ;  traces  of  the  ancient  gilding  may  still  be  seen 
on  the  azure  background. 


^'W^. 


If 

^1 

* 

f 

1- 

1 

1  ■  ' 

« ' 

1" 

1  1 

T 

'•■■ 

.  1  . 

in 

1              ! 

■  \ 

1 

h     1    ii 

1      1'        1 

The  Palaestra  of  the  S'abian  Therma; 

The  apodyterium,  divided  into   two    unequal  parts,  is  decorated  with 
mythological  subjects  ;  among  them,  a  Venus  and  two  Hermaphrodites  in 


148 


POMPEI:    THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND    ART 


Stucco  relief.  The  caldariiim  and  tepidarium  are  not  in  good  preservation, 
and  nothincr  remains  of  the  hollow  floor  but  the  small  brick  pillars.  There 
are  other  rooms  attached  to  the  thernup,  and  in  one  of  these  was  found  a 
bronze  brazier  presented  by  Nisidius  Vaccula,  whose  name  we  have  seen 

on  a  similar  brazier  in  the  baths  of  the  Forum. 

The  smaller  baths  contain,  besides  other  rooms, 
a  baptisterium,  a  tepidarium,  and  a  caldarium. 

In  ih^ paio'sira  of  the  Stabian  thermce  the  area  is 
surrounded  on  three  sides  by  a  portico,  while  the 
fourth  is  occupied  by  swimming-baths,  the  outer 
walls  of  which  are  covered  with  bas-reliefs  of  coloured 
stucco.  Traces  of  cupboards  let  into  the  walls  are 
still  to  be  seen  here ;  two  large  balls  used  in  the 
game    of   sphara    have    also    been   discovered,  and 

Ephebus   leaning  on  a  Trochus  ^    _  ^  n        •  '-ri 

(Stucco  in  the  Naples  Museum)  moncy-boxcs  Containing  various  small  corns.  Throwmg 
the  discus,  the  use  of  the  ha/teres,  and  fencing  with  wooden  swords,  were 
amongst  the  various  amusements  of  the  palcvstra,  where  wresding  matches 
and  races. were  held.  Some  runners  were  provided  with  hoops,  as  we  see 
in  a  stucco  relief  representing  a  beautiful  youth,  naked  and  leaning  upon 
his  trochus. 


A 


(«     < 

u 


W         ♦/ 


( 


V 


THE   SMALL  THERM.E   AND  THE   MUNICIPAL   PALESTRA 

AT  Pompei  the  small  thermce  constituted  a  special  private  establish- 
ment, containing,  still  intact  in  parts,  a  space  reserved  for  gymnastic 
exercises,  in  addition   to  the  various  rooms  used  for  the  baths.* 

The  site  of  the  thermce  bears  some  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Villas  of 
Crassus  Frugi  and  Diomedes.  Like  these,  the  small  thermcu  lie  on  the  slope 
of  the  hill  of  tufa  on  which  the  city  stands  ;  numerous  flights  of  steps 
connect  the  plateau  above  with  the  valley  beneath,  giving  access  at  intervals 
to  delightful  terraces  looking  to  the  south. 

From  the  street  can  be  seen  the  pavement  of  the  prothyrum,  with  its 
mosaic  of  two  wrestlers,  in  black  upon  a  white  ground.  One  of  the  various 
paintings  on  the  walls  of  the  hall  used  for  gymnastic  exercises  represents  a 
professional  wrestler,  with  huge  muscular  arms  and  a  brutal  head.  He  has 
just  overcome  his  opponent,  who  is  stretched  face  downwards  on  the 
ground,  apparently  in  a  piteous  plight,  while  the  victor,  without  loosening 
his  grip,  receives  the  prize  from  the  President  of  the  Games. 

In  another  panel  we  see  a  young  man  standing  with  a  strigil  in  his 
hand,  like  some  ancient  statue  of  an  Apoxyovienos.  Another  picture 
represents  a  youth  who  has  vvon  a  fencing-match  ;  he  holds  a  palm-branch 
and  a  shield.  Farther  on  a  man,  wearing  the /«/////;;/,  carries  in  his  hand  an 
object  which  is  probably  a  small  chaplet  of  flowers.     These  chaplets,  which 


v>'^ 


*  Strabo  says  that  Naples,  though  it  had  become  Roman,  still  kept  up  Greek  customs,  and  had 
its  ephel'ia,  its  gymnasia,  and  its  phratricc.     This  was  also  the  case  at  Pompei. 


•50 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


h 


i 


were  used  as  crowns,  may  be  seen  in  several  paintings  in  Pompei,  repre- 
senting Cupids  selling  flowers  and  garlands. 

Athletes  were  of 
two  classes,  the  light 
and  the  heavy  athletes. 
The  former  practised 
wrestling,  boxing,  and 
the  pancratium,  the 
latter    all    varieties    of 

The  Mosaic  of  the  Prothyrum  of  ihe  small  Therma:  exerciseS,      both      heavy 

and  light ;  and  these  were  considered  the  more  accomplished.  If  at  the 
age  of  thirty-five  an  athlete  had  not  gained  a  crown,  he  left  the  profession. 
These  athletes  were  obliged  to  live  by  rule.*     They  ate  a   special   kind 


Wrcitlcrs  (a  Painting) 

of  bread  and  took  compulsory  meals,  after  which  they  received  injections.! 
They  were  recommended  to  eat  slowly  and  to  chew  their  food  well,  in 
order   to   become   robust.      Their   usual   diet   was  bread  and  roast  pork, 

*  Athletes,  to  keep  up  their  strength,  ate  a  very  nourishing  kind  of  bread  (fo/i/Aia),  of  a 
peculiar  shape,  which  was  sold  in  the  streets  of  Rome.     (Martial.) 
\  Saglio,  Dictionnaire  des  A  ntiquilcs,  Athlcta, 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   AND   RECREATIONS   OF   POMPEI  151 

sprinkled  with  aniseed ;   they  only  drank  wine  after 

they  had  slaked  their  thirst  with  water. 

The    life    of    these    professional     athletes    was 

not  an   elevating   or    intellectual   one ;    it   developed 

the   body   only,    all    its   care   being   directed   to    the 

perfecting  of  the  human  animal.    Gallienus*  sums  up 

their  existence  in  a  few  words  :  "  To  eat,  drink,  sleep, 

purge    the    stomach,    and    wallow    in    the    dust    and 

mud."      Nevertheless,  the  training  of  the  gymnasium 

produced  very  fine  speci- 
mens of  manhood,  especi- 
ally when  intellectual 
culture  was  combined  with 
this  salutary  exercise. 

.     -  J         After  the  Wrestling  Match 

Pompei  also  possessed  (Painting) 

a  municipal  paUcstra,  adjoining  the  Temple  of 
Isis,  and  incorrectly  called  the  Curia  hiaca. 
It  consisted  of  a  large  court  surrounded  by  a 
portico,  where  the 
Doryphoros  of  the 
Naples  Museumt  was 
found.  This  building 
dates  from  the  Sam- 

Athlete  using  a  SJrigil  (Painting)  nite    period,    but    WaS 

reduced  in  size  when  the  Temple  of  Isis  was 
rebuilt.  An  Oscan  inscription  records  that 
Vibius  Vinicius,  a  quaestor  of  Pompei,  built  the 
palastra  for  the  youth  of  the  city,  at  the  expense 
of  Vibius  Adiramus,  and  in  accordance  with  his 

will.       In     the    area,    which     is    open     to     the    sky,  victorious  Fencer  (Pain.ing) 

*  GalL  Hymn.  37,  V.  t  See  Part  VI.,  ui.  2. 


i 


152 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


I 


Stands  a  marble  socle  or  base  on  which  the  prizes  given  to  the  victors  in 
the  various  contests  were  placed.     It  was  the  custom  for  the  victors  to 


-^^- 


The  Municipal  Pabestra 


mount  the  few  steps  we  still  see  to  crown  Mercury,  the  patron  of  the 
palicstra,  whose  statue  probably  stood  on  the  pedestal  which  is  still  in 
existence. 


VI 


THE    BARRACKS    OF   THE    GLADIATORS-PLAV-BILLS-THE    FIGHT   BETWEEN 

THE   NUCERIANS  AND   POMPEIANS 

THE  barracks  of  the  gladiators  lie  in  the  direction  of  the  valley  of 
the  Sarnus ;  helmets  and  arms,  a  saddle,  and  some  musical  instru- 
ments in  use  in  the  amphitheatre 
have  been  discovered  on  the  spot.  The 
barracks  consist  of  a  great  courtyard 
surrounded  by  a  quadrangular  portico  of 
one  hundred  columns  ;  in  this  space  the 
gladiators  practised  before  the  contests; 
the  sixty  cells  beneath  the  colonnade  were 
occupied  by  gladiators  on  the  days  of  the 

games.        The    colonnade   supported   an  Fetters  (Naples  Museun,) 

upper  storey,  forming  a  balcony  in  front  connecting  the  various  rooms. 


ttHHM 


Fetters  (Naples  Museum) 

Part  of  the  building  was  used  as  a  prison,  and  here  several  skeletons  were 
found,  the  leg- bones  encircled  by  iron  fetters.* 

On  the  columns  of  the  portico,  covered  with  inscriptions  scratched  with 
*  Sixty-three  skeletons  were  found  in  the  barracks. 


( 


»S4 


POMPEI:   THE  CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


a  pointed  instrument,  we  find  compliments  addressed  to  the  gladiators  : 
Rusticofdicitcr!  Bis  victor  libertus!  Victor  Veneri partnam  fcret !  and  so  on. 
Amonjr  the  most  important  graffiti  of  the  combatants  of  the  amphitheatre 
is  a  sketch  representing  a  Samnite  gladiator ;  by  his  side  his  thirty-two 
victories  are  recorded,  and  a  palm  and  crown  are  cut.  In  a  lane  close  by, 
between   the  two  theatres,   another  graffito  has  preserved  the  barbarous 


The  Barracks  of  the  GUdiators 

names  of  Viriotalus,  Sequanus,  Viriodus,  and  others ;  a  fabulous  score  of 
victories  is  recorded  against  their  names. 

There  is  a  curious  drawing  of  this  kind,  on  which  is  the  inscription  : 
Campani,  Victoria  una  cum  Nucerinis  peristis*  ("  Campanians,  by  your 
victory  you  have  undone  yourselves  as  well  as  the  Nucerians").  We  read 
in  Tacitus  that  in  the  year  59  a.d.  a  certain  Livineius  Regulus  gave  a 
gladiatarial  display  at   Pompei  to  which  the  people  of  the  neighbouring 

*  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  1293. 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   AND    RECREATIONS   OF   POMPEI 


«55 


town  of  Nuceria  were  invited,  but  the 
day  ended  in  a  general  brawl,  in  which  a 
great  number  of  Nucerians  were  killed. 
The  people  of  Nuceria  made  complaint 
to  Nero,  and  the  Roman  Senate  decreed 
that  there  should  be  no  more  contests  in 
the  amphitheatre  at  Pompei  for  ten  years. 
Hence  the  graffito ^  which  was  evidently 


y 


>jv\/\T^'iv) 


Graffito 


ViklorflL'    fx  jf^/^Tll/^e        traced     by    a 

VAU/?'     AXN/       V|R\Dr/i((      Nucerian. 

\/-/>w,        C         i^^tV-n^y         A    more 

)lK\nL'      C  ^M    PU    rs,v,vy  1-    •        J 

ment  in  this  connection  is  fur- 


Graffito 


nished  by  a  rude  painting 
discovered  in  the  city,  which 
represents  the  actual  f/icMe.  It 
shows  the  amphitheatre,  with 
the  combatants  fighting  in  the 
arena,  on  the  seats,  and  on  the 
steps  ;   the   Nucerians  fall  on  every  side,  mortally 

wounded.      Round  the  amphitheatre  there  are  trees  and  various  buildino-s  * 

among  them  small  open-air  booths, 

sheltered   from    the  wind    by  ve/a, 

where  hot  and  cold  drinks  were  sold. 

Two  men  are  represented  carrying 


the  litter  (/cctica)  used  by  luxurious    - 
people,  and  women,  to  take  them 
to  the  shows,  which  were  announced 
several  days  beforehand  by  notices 
on  the  a/dum.     On  a  wall  near  the  house  known  as  the  Casa  del  Centenario, 
*  Excavations  might  be  made  here,  to  follow  up  this  indication. 


Graffito 


f  I 


i 


« 


156 


POMPEI:    THE   CITY,   ITS    LIFE   AND    ART 


was  the  following  notice  :  "  Twenty  couples  of  gladiators,  paid  by  Decimus 
Lucretius  Satrius  Valens,  priest  of  Nero,  the  son  of  Augustus  Caesar, 
and  ten  couples  of  gladiators,  paid  by  Decimus  Lucretius  Valens,  will 
fight  at  Pompei  on  April  8th,  9th,   loth,   nth,  and   12th   (vi.,  v.,  iv.,  iii.. 


h. 


Fight  of  the  Pompeians  and  Nuceruuis  (Naples  Museum) 


PR.  IDVS  APR).  There  will  be  a  hunt,  and  the  awning  will  be  spread." 
(This  last  detail  is  shown  in  the  painting  of  the  fight  with  the  Nucerians.) 

At  the  bottom  of  the  notice,  the  writer,  y^milius  Celer,  informs  us  that 
the  inscription  was  made  by  moonlight*  (ad  lvna.) 

Other  notices  of  gladiatorial  combats  are  written  on  the  album  of  the 

'■■■  These  dates  correspond  to  those  in  the  Roman  calendar  set  apart  for  games.  In  Pompei,  a 
verification  of  these  dates  has  been  found  for  the  month  of  April.  The  sixth  day  of  the  Ides  was 
for  games  celebrated  in  honour  of  Casar's  victories ;  the  fifth  day  of  the  Ides  for  games  in  honour  of 
Ceres ;  the  fourth  day  of  the  Ides,  games  of  the  circus  ;  the  third  day  of  the  Ides,  games  of  the  circus  ; 
the  day  before  the  Ides,  games  in  honour  of  Ceres.  Shows  in  the  amphitheatre  also  took  place  in 
September,  from  the  Eve  of  the  Nones  to  the  third  day  of  the  Ides  (eight  days). 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   AND    RECREATIONS   OF    POMPEI 


>57 


Building  of  Eumachia.  In  one  of  them  we  read  that  "  the  band  of  gladiators 
of  the  .nedile  Aulus  Svetius  Certus  will  fight  at  Pompei  on  the  eve  of 
the  Kalends  of  June ;  there  will  be  a  hunt,  and  the  awning  will  be  used." 

A  •  SVETTI  •  CERTI 

/TiDILIS-  FAMILIA    GLADATORIA-  PVGNAB- 

POMPEI  S-  PR-  KIVNIAS-  VENATIO 

ET- VELA-  ERUNT.:= 

'■'■'•  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  1189. 


ll 


VII 


THE  AMPHITHEATRE— THE  GLADIATORIAL  COMBATS— THE  •' VENATIONES' 


» 


I   ! 


TH  E  amphitheatre,  as  we  have  seen,  is  situated  at  the  end  of  the  city 
farthest  from  the  sea.     It  is  built  in  the  form  of  an  ellipse  420  yards 
long   by   327   wide,    and   could   contain    12,800   spectators.     The 
building  was  begun  soon  after  the  colonisation  of  Pompei  by  Sylla,  and 

the  magistrates 
who  contributed  to 
the  expenses  of 
erecting  it  had  their 
names  inscribed  on 
its  walls.  It  is 
divided  into  three 
cave(€  and  twenty 
cuneii,  in  which  the 
places  are  marked 
Arena  of  the  Amphitheatre  »n  red;  and  in  fine 

weather  it  was  frequented  by  the  inhabitants  of  all  the  neighbouring 
districts,  for  the  amphitheatre  at  Pompei  was  probably  the  most  important 
of  that  country  side.  The  building  is  surrounded  by  an  arcade  of  forty 
exterior  arches,  several  of  which  served  as  vomiton'a,  and  communicated 
with  the  great  circular  inner  corridor  (the  prcpcinctio)  that  runs  inside 
the  amphitheatre,  beneath  the  tiers  of  seats.  Outside,  stairs  led  to  the 
deambulacrum,  a  broad  terrace  round  the  upper  part  of  the  amphitheatre, 


•< 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   AND   RECREATIONS   OF   POMPEI 


'59 


which  commanded  a  fine  and  extensive  view  of  the  sea,  the   mountains, 
the  city,  and  Vesuvius,  with  its  green  slopes  studded  with  villas. 

Round  the  arena  runs  the  podium,  the  wall  of  which  was  painted  with 
combats  of  gladiators  and  animals,  armour,  palm-branches,  genii,  and  various 
scenes  relating  to  the  distribution  of  prizes.     A  small  door  in  the  wall  of 


/ 


The  Amphitheatre 


\\\G  podium  led  to  the  spoliatorium,  to  which  the  dead  bodies  were  dragged, 
and  the  cages  of  the  animals  were  situated  near  the  two  main  vomitoria. 
The  seats  reserved  for  the  magistrates  may  still  be  seen,  and  also  the 
balteus,  or  wall  that  ran  between  the  seats  and  separated  the  different 
classes  of  society.  A  second  balteus  stands  between  the  second  and  the 
third  miFftianum  (the  summum  mepnianum),  and  various  entrances  here 
and  there  gave  access  to  the  seats  from  an  inner  corridor. 


i6o 


POMPEI:   THE  CITY,   ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   AND    RECREATIONS   OF   POMPEI 


i6i 


fi 


One  of  the  many  inscriptions  in  the  amphitheatre  records  that  the 
head  of  the  Pagus  Augusius  Felix  repaired  a  portion  of  the  building,  and 
that  the  duumvir  Istacidus,  Audius  and  Sextus  Capito  contributed  to  the 
expenses  of  the  games  and  illuminations. 

Names  of  the  families  (familia)  of  gladiators  are  often  inscribed  on 


The  Tieis  of  Seats 

the  notices,  among  others  those  of  Ampliatus  and  Numerius  Popidius 
Rufus.  Rich  men  organised  bands  of  gladiators  {familite),  recruited  from 
among  their  slaves,  who  were  obliged  to  obey  their  master's  orders.  There 
were  also  gladiators  who  enlisted  voluntarily,  criminals,  and  foreign 
prisoners,  among  whom  may  have  been  the  Sequanus  and  Viriodus  of  the 
graffiti.  Programmes,  written  on  leaves  of  papyrus  (the  libellus  munerarius), 
were  handed  round  among  the  spectators,  and  trumpets  and  horns  were 


sounded  before  the  spectacles  began.  A  painting  from  the  amphitheatre 
shows  a  gladiator  acting  as  cornicen,  and  blowing  a  horn  to  announce  the 
forthcoming  combat.     The  director  of  the  games,  the  lanista,  wearing  the 


Comiccn  announcing  the  Combat  (a  Painting  from  the  Podium  of  the  Amphitheatre)  (Naples  Museum) 

angjisticlavus,  and  holding  the  virga  in  his  hand,  appears  to  be  pointing 
out  the  places  of  the  combatants,  and  slaves  are  bringing  armour  and  a 
helmet 

Scenes   from    the    ensuing    combat    are    represented    in    the    much- 

defaced  stucco  bas-  /^    -     <^  (^  ^L  ^^^*^^  ^^  ^^  ^^""^ 

ofScaurus.*   They  ^Vp^^^/lL^^^  represent     eight 

pairs  of  gladiators  ^0f\K      ^®,    M^     h^J  ^^  different  kinds  ; 

their    wounds    are     W    2.       ^^^^     \^JiJr  coloured    red    and 


Gladiatorial  Combat  (from  the  Bas  reliefs  in  Stucco  of  the  Tomb  of  Scaurus,  after  Mazois) 

also  the  inside  of  their  shields.  Two  horsemen  are  armed  with  the  lance 
and  the  round  buckler  ;  their  names  are  Bebrix  and  Nobilior,  and  the 
number  of  their  victories  is  written  against  their  names.  Beside  them  stand 
two  gladiators  with  shields,  one  of  whom  makes  a  sign  with  his  hand  that 
he  is  ready.     Next,  a   heavily  armed   soldier,  the   hoplomachus^  has  just 

'■•'■  Thanks  to  Mazois,  we  are  able  to  give  a  reproduction. 


^^^^^^3 


ri-?M  "-     -—'■"--'-'■— ^'  -  ---"  -  -"--"^  ■•■-..^ 


l62 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND    ART 


overcome  a  :r/i/is,  a  lightly  armed  gladiator.     The  latter,  who  is  wounded 
in  the  chest  and  bleeding,  has  thrown  down  his  shield  and  lance,  and  kneels 


Helmets  of  .Secutores,  Sword  of  n  Gladiator  (i;lndius),  Armour  oi  Gladiators  (Naples  Maseum) 

on  one  knee  with  his  finger  raised  to  ask  for  quarter.  Above  his  head  it 
is  said  that  the  Greek  letter  e  was  decipherable  (the  initial  of  Oovaroc,  death), 
indicating  that  he  was  put  to  death. 

The  next  scene  is  even  more  bloodthirsty.     The  secutores  are  fighting 


\ 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   AND   RECREATIONS   OF   POMPEI 


163 


with  the  retiarii,  and  one  secuior,  covered  with  wounds  from  the  trident 

of  the    retiariuSy   receives   the   death  stroke 

courageously  from  his  comrade's  hand.     The 

victor,  Nitimus,  seems  to  be  pushing  him  on 

to  the  sword,  to  make  an  end  of  him.     In 

the  background,  a  second  retiarius  waits  in 

the  distance  for  another  victim,  while  in  the 

foreground    two    gladiators    appear     to    be 

running  away.       The   other   figures   in    the 

bas-relief  represent  similar  matches,  in  one 

of   which    a  viirniillo  falls  heavily  after  re-  Gladiators  Helmet 

ceiving  his  death  wound. 
Seneca  speaks  with 
indignation  of  these  dis- 
plays. "  What  a  shame 
to  take  a  man's  life, 
which  is  a  sacred  thinir, 
for  sport,  and  butcher 
him  for  the  amusement 
of  his  fellow-men  !  "  But 
this  did  not  prevent  the 

The  End  of  the  Match  (a  Painting  on  the  Podium  of  the  Amphitheatre)  rt\-  A'    ^  f  K    ' 

popular  heroes.     Pictures  of  them  are  found  in  the  ^\ 

most  diverse  places  :  on  the  walls  of  private  houses, 

in  the  chambers  of  courtesans,  and  in  the  thertno- 

polia.     Their   exploits   seem    to  have  had  a  great 

attraction  for  young  girls,  to  judge  from  the  epithets 

of  ptiellarum  dccus  (charmer  of  girls)  and  suspirium 

puellarum  (thou  for  whom  the  girls  sigh)  written 

against  the  gladiators  in  the  graffiti. 

The  attraction  of  the  amphitheatre  was  so  great      ^'"'^l^i^^lll^^r^'' 


164 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND   ART 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   AND   RECREATIONS    IN    POMPEI 


165 


;. 


that  the  people  crowded  it  in  wild  enthusiasm.  Mingled  with  this 
enthusiasm  there  was,  no  doubt,  something  of  that  selfish  pagan  spirit 
which  makes  Lucretius  say  :    *'  it  is  pleasant  to  watch  the  waters  of  the 


G^t 


-^^ 


Bas-rclicl  in  Stucco  on  the  Tomb  of  Scaurus  (\>natio) 

great  sea  stirred  by  the  storm-winds,  and  standing  ashore,  to  see  one  far 

off  mightily  struggling."  * 

Palm-branches   and    crowns    were   awarded    to    the    victors    in    these 

matches,  and  the  heavy  and  richly  ornamented   helmets  found  in  the   city 

were  given  as  prizes.     A  votive  badge  of  a  rciiarius,  representing  a  gakrus, 

a  sort  of  small  buckler  for  the 
protection  of  the  left  shoulder, 
was  also  found  in  Pompei.  It  is 
ornamented  with  a  trident  sur- 
rounded by  palm,  a  crown,  and 
the  number  of  its  owner's  vic- 
tories. 

After  these  human  combats 
the  programme  of  the  more  im- 
portant entertainments  announced 
a  hunt  {venatio).  Here  again 
blood  flowed  freely ;  animals  were 

The  Winning  Cock  at  a  Cock-hght  (Mosaic  in  the  Naples  Museum)   dlSembowelled      bv    the      bestittvii 

and  the  venatores  for  the  pleasure  of  the  spectators.  The  venatores  were 
fully  equipped  and  trained,  and  are  not  to  be  confused  with  the  besttarii, 
who  were  lightly  dressed  and  had  no  defensive  weapons.     These  last  were 

*  Lucretius  II.  i. 


chiefly  recruited  among  criminals  condemned  to  imprisonment,  who  were 
occasionally  set  free  after  a  victory.  One  of  these  venationes  is  represented 
on  the  tomb  of  Scaurus :  a  wild  boar  is  attacked  by  a  dog,  which  gnaws 
his  hind  quarters ;  a  bestiarius  plunges  his 
lance  into  the  throat  of  a  bear ;  and  a  bull 
is  shown  transfixed  by  a  skilfully  directed 

I  fill  1  r  -^  ^^'"  ^"'^  ^  '*"''  ^^  Painting  in  the  Podium 

lance,     in  the  background,  a  wolf,  a  stag,  of  the  Amphitheatre) 

and  a  panther  are  preparing  to  fight,  while  some  hares  hunted  by  dogs  give 
a  comic  touch  to  the  scene.  In  one  painting  a  bull  and  a  bear  are 
fastened  together  by  a  rope  and  forced  to  fight.  Lastly,  matches  between 
Gallic  cocks — the  gamest  fighters,  according  to  Petronius — were  very 
popular  among  the  people,  and  a  mosaic  represents  the  winning  cock 
receiving  the  palm-branch.  These  miniature  combats,  however,  probably 
took  place  at  the  theatre. 

In  addition  to  these  spectacles,  where  a  barbarous  passion  filled  twelve 
thousand  souls  with  terror  or  delirium.  Comedy,  less  cruel,  added  its 
note  of  gaiety  and  wit,  licence  and  satire,  to  the  attractions  of  the  pleasure- 
loving  city. 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   AND   RECREATIONS   OF   POMPEI 


167 


t 


II 


f 


VIII 


THE  TRIANGULAR   FORUM— THE  THEATRES— THE  TESSER.E— COMEDY- 
MUSIC— DANCING— THE  ATELLAN    FARCES— FUNAMBULI-THE 
VELARIUM— THEATRICAL   MACHINERY 


T 


HE  two  theatres  of  Pompei,  the  larger  or  tragic  theatre,  which  was 
used  in  the  summer,  and  the  Odeon,  a  covered  theatre  built  in 
the  Greek  style,  stand  side  by  side.      Their  doors  open  into  the 

T  riangular 
Forum,  where 
the  Greek  Tem- 
ple stood,  and  a 
portico  of  the 
Grecian  Doric 
order  formed  the 
hccatonstylon, 
where  the  spec- 
tators found  a 
promenade  shel- 
tered from  the 
sun     and    wind. 

The  Hecatonstylon  of  the  Triangular  Forum  This   Forum,  the 

Agora  of  Pompei  in  its  earlier  Greek  period,  is  delightfully  situated.  The 
far-reaching  valley  it  overlooks  is  bathed  in  the  limpid  atmosphere  of  the 
bay,   where  the   sea   Hashes  in   the  distance.     A  defaced  exedra,  with   a 


sun-dial,  offers  a  resting-place  to  the  visitor ;  placed  at  the  edge  of  the 
Acropolis,  and  dominating  the  valley,  it  is  a  point  of  vantage  whence 
the  eye  explores  the  vague  horizon,  to  lose  itself  in  infinite  distance. 

The  porticoes  were  not  open  to  the 
public ;  their  entrances  were  closed  by  grat- 
ings. Towards  the  street  stand 
the  elegant  Propyl(ea  of  eight 
Greek  Ionic  columnswith  grace- 
ful capitals,  forming  the  exterior 
portico  of  the  Forum,  in  which 
a  fountain  and  a  statue  of 
Marcellus  used   to 

stand. 

The     small 

theatre     is    better 

preserved  than  the 

other.     It    was 

roofed,  theatrum 

tectum,    as    is   re- 
corded   in   various 

inscriptions  placed 

above  the  doors.   It 

could   seat   1500 

spectators:  the  first 

four    tiers,    which 

were  reserved  for  t^  ^     ,  ^  ^       ,   r. 

Propylaea  of  the  Tnangukir  Forum 

the  magistrates,  are  very  broad,  and  on  them  cushions  were  placed,  and 
seats,  many  of  these  being  biscllia,  the  curule-chairs  of  the  adiles  to  whom 
the  municipia  accorded  this  honour.  Above  this  cavea,  bordered  by  a 
baltcus,  there  is  a  long  passage  which  runs  all  round  the  theatre;  the 
upper  cavece  were  reached  by  two  staircases  situated  at  either  end  of  the 


\ 


i68 


POMPEI:    THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   AND    RECREATIONS   OF    POMPEI 


169 


f 


i   t 


semicircle,  against  kneeling  Atlantes.     The  stage  is  in  good  preservation. 

and  also  the  orchestra  with  its  pavement  of  coloured  marbles,  on  which  is 

inlaid  in  bronze  letters  the  name  of  the  donor. 

On  the  walls  of  the  vomitoria  were  many  inscriptions,  now  defaced, 

recording  the  names  of 
gladiators,  or  setting  forth 
some  erotic  sentiment.  One 
of  these  graffiti  mentions 
that  three  soldiers  indulged 
in  a  debauch  in  the  year  of 
the  Consulate  of  Messala 
and  L.  Lentulus — more  than 
eighty  years  before  the 
destruction  of  the  city. 

Tessera',  or  tokens  used 
in  the  theatre,  on  which  the 
number  of  the  seat  was 
marked,  have  been  dis- 
covered. On  two  of  these 
tokens  we  read : 

XIHMIKYAAIAIA 
XIIAISXYAGYIB 

i.e..  Semicircle  XI.  and  XII. 

The  Roofed  Theatre.    The  Door  on  the  Street  of  Stablae  of      i^SChyluS      (the      Greek 

letters  lA  and  IB  correspond  to  the  Roman  numerals  XI.  and  XII.). 

These  tessera  were  made  in  a  variety  of  shapes,  some  of  them 
representing  almonds,  death's-heads,  fishes,  and  bagpipes;  others,  shaped 
like  pigeons,  were  no  doubt  used  by  spectators  who  sat  in  the  highest 
rows.  The  Neapolitan  expression,  '* piccionaia,"  for  the  seats  in  the  upper 
gallery,  preserves  a  tradition  that  is  also  perpetuated  in  the  French  term 
poulailler.     The  name  is  a  happy  one,  for  in  the  ancient  open-air  theatres 


birds  of  all  kinds  came  and  perched  on  the  top  of  the  wall  against  which  the 
spectators  in  the  uppermost  cavea  were  leaning. 

It  was  not  only  in  the  theatre  that  tesserce  were  current.     They  were 
also  in  use  in  the  amphitheatre,  in  contracts,  and  as  a  token  of  hospitality 


,OIIi(i'>       .  ^ 


(^c:g:.yAPIO  j 


Tesserae  (Naples  Museum) 


given  or  received.  They  were  then  long  and  thin  in  shape,  and  had 
marked  on  them  the  names  of  two  friends,  who,  when  they  parted,  broke 
the  token  in  two,  each  keeping  half,  so  that,  if  they  ever  met  again,  they 
could  recognise  one  another  by  joining  the  broken  halves  together.  Tessera 
were  also  distributed  by  rich  magistrates  at  the  games  held  in  the  amphi- 
theatre, and,  according  to  Martial,  this  gave  the  owners  of  the  tokens  the 
right  to  "  the  beasts  of  the  arena,  and  the  birds,  who  came  gladly  to  find  a 


■^ 


I 


i 


170 


I'OMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   AND   RECREATIONS   OF   POMPEI 


171 


/ 


M 


'>)! 


t 


Aoditoriuin  and  Orchestra  of  the  Roofed  Theatre 

resting-place   in    the    breast    of    the 

mastei;whom  chance  had  given  them, 

thus  escaping  death." 

What   were   the   principal  plays 

performed  in  the  Pompeian  theatres  ? 

The   rich   Romans  who   came   down 

to  their  country  houses  in  Campania 

had,  no  doubt,  a  taste  for  the  Greek 

drama,    of  which   the    Latin    theatre 

was  but  an  echo ;  the  actors  of  Pompei 

accordingly  donned  the  pallium  and 

acted  Greek  plays.  The  co7nedia 
\j  palliata  was,  moreover,  brilliantly 
j,    represented   by    Latin   authors,   such 

as   Livius,   Andronicus,  and  Na;vius, 
^^^^^  without  counting  the  greater  drama- 

C^  Actor  (Terracotta    ^IStS.       The  COmcdta  togata  of  AfraniuS      Comk  Actreu  (Terracotta 
^^.n    U.e    Naples    ^^^^^    ^^^^^^    ^^^     ^^^^^    ^^    ^^^^^^         ^^^    .,,    ^.^^ 


dressed  in  the  toga,  was  also  very  popular  with  the  lower  orders  ;  it 
represented  scenes  from  Roman  life,  with  much  satirical  drollery. 

The  actors  them- 
selves, some  with  their 

faces  made  up  to  look 

like  satyrs,  others 

wearing  grotesque 

masks  with  hollow 

eyes,  and  mouths  as 

wide     as    gargoyles, 

Marble  Mask  (Naples  Museum)  "fit     tO     SWalloW     the  Marble  Mask  (Naples  Museum) 

audience,"  as  Lucian  writes,*  were  known  by  the  name  of  histriones. 
This  name,  according  to  Valerius  Maximus,  was  first  given  by  the 
Etruscans  to  a  troupe  of  comedians  who  came  on  tour  to  Rome  at  the 
time  of  the  Rape  of  the  Sabines :    the  novelty  of  the   entertainment   so 

delighted  the  young 

Romans  that  their  name 

of  hish'iones  was  always 

afterwards   used   for 

actors. 

According   to    the 

Romans  themselves,  the 

Marble  Mask  (Naples  Museum)  Greeks     WCrC     the    Only 

good   actors,  able   to   move  to  tears   or  laughter  ; 

but  what  must  have  been  especially  pleasing  to  the 

Pompeians,  as  the  national  product   of  Campania, 

were  the  Atellan  farces.     These  pantomimic  pieces,  originally  produced  at 

Atella,  a  town  near  Naples,  represent  the  old  Oscan  comedy,  racy  of  the  soil ; 

*  The  masks  were  vciy  varied  in  their  expression,  and  the  wide  mouth  with  its  trumpet-shaped 
openinK  gave  a  greater  resonance  to  the  voice,  which  lost  a  good  deal  of  its  power  in  the  open-air 
theatres. 


An  Actor  (Painting  in  the  Naples 
Museum) 


V' 


17* 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


1/ 


E  1 


I 


several  of  the  types  still  survive.  It  was  often  mere  coarse  burlesque  ; 
varied  by  interludes  of  dance  and  song,  it  was  called  *'  sa^ura "  ;  later  on, 
the  name  of  exodia  was  given  to  it ;  and  Novius  and  Pomponius  attempted 
to  give  it  a  literary  character.* 

The  farces  had  titles  such  as  :  Crotule  vel  petitor,  Papus  prtrteritus, 
Maccns  Sequester,  and  so  on.  This  last  person,  with  his  bald  head  and  his 
great  nose  covered  with  warts,  was  a  sot  and  debauchee,  who  reappears  as 

the    Pulchinello    of 

Naples,  the  city  where 

classic  traditions  have 

been    more    faithfully 

preserved    than    any- 

^   where   else.      Among 

other  stock  characters 

of  these   plays  was 

Ducco,  a  glutton  and  a 

rogue,   Dorsennus  the 

y    hunchback,  and  Man- 

^    drinis  with   his  broad 

Choir,  Singer.  Tibicen  and  Cith.-ira  Player  (Painfing  in  the  Naples  Museum)       mOUth    full  of    teCth a 

veritable  ogre.  It  is  easy  to  imagine  what  these  ludicrous  comedies  must 
have  been,  rendered  in  the  animated  and  noisy  fashion  of  the  modern 
Neapolitans,  who,  as  a  picturesque  expression  has  it,  have  "talkative 
hands."  In  these  farces  many  of  the  spectators  took  part  as  well  as 
the  professional  actors,  and  often  the  piece  was  a  cross-fire  of  jests  and 
sallies  adapted  to  some  given  theme,  each  interlocutor  contributing  his 
witticisms  in  a  scene  of  grotesque  ribaldry.  Political  allusions  furnished 
matter  for  innumerable  satirical  quips  at  the  time  of  the  municipal  elections, 
and  the  actors  even  dared  to  censure  the  crimes  of  the  Emperors,  who 
occasionally  made  them  pay  deariy  for  their  liberty  of  speech. 

♦  Boissier,  Dictionnaire  desAntiquites  de  Sa^lio :  AtelUna:  fabuljc. 


•'^y  'n*  Mouths  of  Flutes 

Musicians  and  Musical  Instruments  (Naples  Museum) 


1 


"74 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND  ART 


Vl 


M 


Music  also  lent,  its  aid  to  these  dramatic  representations,  as  is  shown  by 
the  end  of  the  first  act  of  the  Pscudolns  of  Plautus,  where  the  actor  informs 
the  company  that,  while  he  proceeds  with  his  knaveries,  the  flute-player  will 
entertain  the  audience ;  and  Cicero,  speaking  of  an  actor  who  declaimed 
a  tragic  passage  with  a  timid  air,  writes :  "  As  he  was  reciting  such  fine 
verses  to  the  accompaniment  of  such  a  melodious  flute,  I  cannot  see  why 

he  was  frightened."  The  syrinx, 
cymbals,  tambourine,  and  double 
flute  were  also  used  on  the  stage. 
This  last  instrument  was  played 
with  the  help  of  the  capistrum,  a 
broad  strap  of  leather  with  a  hole 
in  it,  which  was  placed  over  the 
mouths  of  instruments  to  give 
them  a  fuller  and  more  resonant 
tone.  The  cithara,  which  had  a 
citharadi  (a  Painting  in  the  Casa  del  citarista)  soft  and  musical  note,  was  made 

to  vibrate  by  the  touch  of  a  quill  or  a  piece  of  wood  called  the  picctrum, 
but  it  was  also  pressed  with  the  fingers.  All  players  on  the  cithara  were 
called  citharistce,  but  the  name  a'iharcrdus,  the  title  of  Apollo  Musagetes. 
was  only  given  to  a  genuine  artist,  a  skilled  musician  who  could  compose 
and  improvise  the  melodies  he  rendered. 

Displays  of  agility  and  rhythmic  movement  followed  after  those  of 
volubility  and  ready  wit.  The  Funambuii  danced  on  the  tight-rope, 
and  showed  their  skill  by  playing  music  and  pouring  water  from  a  rhytm 
into  a  cup,  keeping  their  balance  the  while.  The  Kuhistcteres  and  Ccmui 
walked  on  their  hands  and  performed  various  gymnastic  exercises  with 
their  feet,  capered  and  tumbled  like  clowns,  and  jumped  through  hoops 
in  the  midst  of  upright  swords.  To  all  these  exercises  there  was  a  musical 
accompaniment,  as  in  our  own  times,  to  mark  the  cadence,  an .  indispen- 
sable aid  to  feats  of  ecjuilibrium. 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   AND   RECREATIONS   OF   POMPEI 


'75 


^— 7 


In  ancient  times  every  theatrical  representation  included  dancing, 
which  was  the  earliest  form  of  entertainment.  The  theatres  had  a  large 
space,  the  orchestra  (from  the  Greek  opx'j<tt»,c,  a  dance)  specially  designed 
for  this  purpose.  The  dancers  were  stationed  close  to  the  front  tier  of 
seats,  and  the  spec- 
tators thus  had  a 
good  view  of  their 
pantomime  and  of 
their  graceful  evo- 
lutions. Dancing 
was  honoured 
above  all  bodily 
exercises     by    the 

ancients,       and      no  Funambulus  (painting  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

ceremony  was  complete  without  it.  What  an  infinite  variety  of  delicate 
outline  sketches  of  saltatrices  are  to  be  seen  on  the  walls  of  Pompei,  full 
of  life  and  movement ! 

"To  dance,"  says   Lucian,   "is  to  honour  Venus  and   Bacchus,  and 


Funambuii  (P;untings  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

dancing  is  an  initiation  into  love  itself."  This  sentiment  was  too  much 
in  accordance  with  the  Pompeian  spirit  to  have  been  neglected,  and 
Greek  dances  must  certainly  have  been  performed  in  Pompei,  for  in  a  city 
full  of  Greek  traditions  and  Hellenistic  influences  we  cannot  doubt  that 
the  ancient  rhythmic  dances  of  Hellas  had  been  preserved. 


J 


/ 


ll 


176 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   AND    RECREATIONS   OF   POMPEI 


177 


!W 


M 


'J 


Among  the  various  dances,  the  Emmeleia,  the  Sicinnis,  and  the  Coniax 
were  danced  in  tragedy  and  comedy.  The  Cordax,  a  somewhat  obscene 
dance,  appears  to  have  been,  like  the  Tarantella,  confined  to  the  neighbour- 

-^  hood  of  Naples.  There  were  also 
Bacchic  dances,  such  as  that  of  the 
VVine-Pnss,  imitated  from  the  vine- 
dressers' dance.  The  Chorea  was 
danced   in   a   ring;   in   the   Hormus, 

A  Satyric  Dance  (Mosaic  in  the  Naples  Museum)  yOUths     and      maidenS     joined      hands, 

forming  a  circlet  of  mingled  grace  and  vigour. 

Like  the  Odeon  of  Pericles  at  Athens,  which  was  also  a  covered 
theatre,  the  small  theatre  at  Pompei  did  duty  as  a  concert-hall,  and  the 
great  theatre,  where  plays  were  more  sumptuously  staged,  was  used  in  the 
summer.  A  velarimn,  or 
awning,  was  then  stretched 
above  the  auditorium,  and 
fastened  to  the  top  of  the 
building,  to  beams  fixed 
in  place  by  stone  rings, 
which  are  still  in  existence. 
These  awnings  were  first 
used  in  Pompei,  and  Ammi- 
anus  Marcellinus  satirises 
the  plebeians  for  sheltering 

themselves    under    awnings  Dancers  (a  Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

borrowed  from  voluptuous  Campania,  which  Valerius  Maximus  denounces 
for  this  semie  effeminate  practice.  In  the  heat  of  summer  the  air  was 
cooled  by  showers  scented  with  saffron  and  other  perfumes,  from  a 
reservoir,  traces  of  which  are  still  visible.  Thus  music,  poetry,  dancing, 
and  the  scent  of  flowers  all  combined  to  make  the  theatre  a  favourite 
haunt  of  the  fastidious,  eager  for  the  more  refined  pleasures  of  the  senses. 


"% 


Intcrcohimnium  of  the  Theatre  (Marble  Ros-relief 
in  the  Naples  Museum) 


The  great  theatre  is  of  a  later  date  than  the  small  Greek  theatre,  and 
was  built  in  the  reign  of  Augustus  by  the  architect  M.  Antonius  Primus  with 
money  supplied  by  the  brothers  Oiconius 
Marcus  Rufus  and  Marcus  Celer.  The 
auditorium  contains  three  caveo",  five 
cuncii,  and  tribunes  (or  "stage-boxes"). 
In  the  first  tier  may  be  seen  the  place 
reserved  for  the  bisellium  of  the  father 
of  Oiconius,  a  Hamcn  of  Augustus, 
whose  name  is  recorded  in  inlaid  letters 
of  bronze.  A  wide  semicircular  pro- 
menade above  the  upper  cavea  offered  a  fine  view  of  the  mountains 
towards  Stabiai,  and,  protected  by  a  portico,  must  have  answered  much 
the  same  purpose  as  the  modern  foyer. 

Amongst  the  Greeks  the  feminine  part  of  the  audience  consisted  solely 
^^^^        ^^^^     .^^__„_..^        ^^  courtesans,    but    in     Rome 
"^^'*    '^fl^^^'vKwtiMa^^Kiiii      women  frequented  the  theatres 

and  took  their  seats  amonsf 
the  men.  Ovid  recommends 
men  who  are  seated  behind 
women  at  the  theatre  to  see 
that  their  knees  do  not  bruise 
their  shoulders.  He  also  adds 
that  women  went  to  the  play 
to  be  seen  rather  than  to  see, 

and  that  footstools  were  placed  under   their   feet   and   soft   cushions   on 

their  seats. 

The  audience  itself  at  the  theatre  was  often  as  interesting  a  sight  as  any- 
thing on  the  stage.  Plautus,  in  the  Prologue  to  the  Pccnulus,  gives  a  life- 
like description  of  the  crowded  auditorium  ;  courtesans  often  sat  on  the 
proscenium,  and   an  official  of  the  theatre,  acting  as   box-keeper,  showed 

l 


Intcrcolumnium  of  the  Theatre  (Marble  Bas-relief  in  the 
Naples  Museum) 


i 


178 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE  AND   ART 


PUBLIC    BUILDINGS    AND    RECREATIONS    OF    POMPEI 


179 


the  spectators,  armed  with  their  tesserct,  to  their  seats.     Late-comers,  who 
had  overslept  themselves,  were  obliged  to  stand,  as  there  were  no  seats  left 


-J  11 

General  Vi«w  of  the  Great  Theatre 


for  them  ;  slaves  who  climbed  up  the  tiers  were  driven  away  with  blows, 
while  nurses  suckled   their  charges,  bleating  like  young  kids.     The  women 


^^>:5^^^^'-^""' 


'■> 


Stage  and  Auditorium  of  the  Great  Theatre  seer,  from  the  Choragium 

were  requested  to  watch  the  play  in  silence  and  to  laugh  quietly,  and 
finally  the  herald  announced  that  the  actors  would  not  be  the  object  of  any 
cabals,  "and  that  the  palm  would  be  awarded  fairly." 

We  may  now  turn  to  the  stage  and  to  the  part  of  the  theatre  reserved 


for  the  actors.  That 
immediately  in  front  of  the 
scena,  or  stage  proper,  was 
the  proscenium,  where 
interludes  {embolics)  were 
performed  by  young  actors 
and  actresses.  The  pro- 
scenium was  on  the  pulpi- 
tum  of  the  theatre,  which 
communicated  with  the 
orchestra  by  small  flights 
of  steps.  The  curtain  in 
front  of  the  stage  was 
called  the  auleum  in 
tragedies,  and  was  let 
down  beneath  the  theatre 


If  ^  J- 


The  Cboragus  (Painting  in  the  Napleb 
Museum) 

their  parts,  as  shown  in  a 


A  Scene  in  the  Choragium  (Mosaic  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

into  the  hyposcenium,  while  in  comedies  the 
curtain  was  called  the  siparium,  and  was 
drawn  on  either  side. 

The  scena  proper  was  decorated  with 
an  architectural  background,  ornamented  with 
marble  and  statues ;  this  was  the  scena  sta- 
bilis.  At  the  great  theatre  in  Pompei  this 
fixed  scene  had  three  doors  ;  the  central  door 
was  only  used  by  gods  and  princes,  the  one 
to  the  right  by  women  and  the  gens  domestica, 
and  the  one  to  the  left  by  strangers. 

Behind   the   stage,   the  postscenium  in- 
cluded   the    wings    and    the    choragium,    a 
room  where  theatrical  properties  were  kept, 
and  where  the  actors  dressed  and  rehearsed 
painting  and  a  mosaic. 


1(1 


I  So 


POMPEI:    THE    CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND   ART 


The  machinery  of  the  theatre  was  much  more  complex  than  one  would 
have  imagined,  for  the  absence  of  a  roof  above  the  stage  made  it  difficult  to 
manage    stage    effects.     Changes   of    scene   were   effected    by   means   of 
ingenious  machines  called  ptriactoi^immts  revolving  on  a  pivot,  and  shaped 
like  a  prism,  on  each  side  of  which  was  painted  a  scene  from  the  play,  which 
could  be  changed  at  will.     These  periactoi  were  three  in  number ;  one  stood 
at  the  back  of  the  stage  and  the  other  two  at  the  wings,  like  our  modern 
side-scenes.     At  a  given  signal  the  triangular  frames  were  turned  by  work- 
men and  the  scene  was  changed.      When    the  scene  represented  was  a 
public  place,  and  it  was  necessary  to  show  what  was  going  on  within  the 
palace  at  the  back  of  the  stage,  the  encyclema,  a  low  truck  on  wheels,  was 
rolled  on  to  the  stage  from  the  inclined  plane  that  may  be  seen  in   the 
postscenium,    with   the   actors   arranged   on   it   to   form   a  tableau  vivant. 
Even  thunder  was  imitated  with  the  bronteion,  and  the  effect  of  lightning 
was  produced  by  special  lamps,  when  Jove  descended  in  apotheoses.     All 
the  gods  of  Olympus  were  brought  upon  the  stage,   but  they  were  not 
always  very  reverently  treated  ;  Jove  was  laughed  to  scorn,  and  Diana  was 
even  whipped.     The  Romans,  like  Ovid,  no  longer  took  the  gods  seriously. 
They  were  chiefly  interested  in  the  divine  amours,  from  which  they  drew 
encouragement  for  their  own  dissolute  manners. 


wV^vaflMH 


■fa     I    '     ■>*■'■!    ■*&■ 


K 


PART    IV 


THE   STREETS,   INSCRIPTIONS,   INDUSTRIES 


\ 


\ 


w 


.■>.-4Wr-^-  \ 


>^<>^ 


^ 


PL.    VI 


I 

'I' 


I'OMPKFA.X     I' OUT  HA  ITS 


i.     HKUKl.N     VII 


I  N  S  I'  I.  A 


RK«il*>.\ 


XII         No  26 


2.  —  KK(;ioN   VIII  I  >  SI  I.  A    V  .No  .{y 


VII 


I  N  S  f  I.  A 


I  V         No  :{|    {Cisd  ,/i  .1 


I  ii<iiia\ 


V 


I 


THE   STREETS  OF   POMPEI— THE  WATER  AND  THE   SEWERS-THE 

ROADS  AND   FOOTWAYS 

WE  have  mentioned  many  of  the  streets  of  Pompei  in  connection 
with  the  various  public  buildings  we  have  visited,  but  as  yet  we 
have  not  paused  to  examine  those  special  features  which  are  yet 
another  attraction  of  Pompei,  where  the  ancient  roads  and  alleys,  with  their 
borders  of  stone,  speak  so  curiously  of  the  past. 

All  the  streets  have  footways  raised  much  higher  than  ours  ;  beside 
them  there  ran  a  stream  which  collected  the  water  from  the  kitchens, 
thermopolia,  and  tan-yards,  and  fell  into  a  gutter  beneath  the  foot- 
way. Many  of  the  latrincc  even  had  a  small  outlet  into  these  gutters, 
though  most  of  them  were  connected  with  the  main  sewer  by  terra-cotta 
pipes.  A  great  deal  of  refuse  must,  however,  have  fallen  into  the  stream  ; 
but  this  difficulty  was  met  by  an  abundant  supply  of  water  all  along  the 
footway  from  aqueducts  now  destroyed.  It  was  carried  by  numerous 
leaden  pipes  (on  many  of  which  may  still  be  read  the  name  of  the  maker  : 
tx  officina  Claudii)  into  stone  or  marble  fountains.  From  these  foun- 
tains the  water  ran  in  all  directions,  flushing  the  street  and  falling  at  last 
into  large  openings  beneath  the  footway  or  at  the  end  of  streets  ending 
in  a  cul-de-sac  {fundula).  (There  was  a  very  good  water  supply  for 
domestic  purposes,  and  every  house  had  its  own  tap.) 

It  would  seem,  however,  that  the  Pompeians  must  have  been  obliged 
to  wade  ankle-deep  in  mud,  even  on  a  fine  day,  when  they  crossed  the  road. 


( 

0 


1 84 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


THE  STREETS  -  INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


185 


But  this  was  not  the  case.  At  once  indolent  and  practical,  the  citizens 
avoided  this  discomfort  by  layinor  down  one,  two,  or  three  flat  stepping- 
stones  of  the  same  height  as  the  footway  at  equal  distances  from  one  another. 
Thus,  the  Pompeians  could  cross  lightly  from  one  pavement  to  the  other 
in  two  or  three  strides,  without  having  to  step  up  and  down  into  the  street. 
In  many  streets  the  heavy  antique  chariots,  passing  continually  over  the 


,'j 


The  Street  of  Slabise 


same  track,  have  worn  ruts  in  the  flagstones  deeper  than  those  of  a  cart 
loaded  with  hay  would  make  in  a  ploughed  field. 

The  public  fountains  of  the  city  are  generally  ornamented  with 
decorative  masks,  from  which  the  water  escaped ;  heads  of  lions  and  bulls, 
Mercury,  Abundance,  Minerva,  and  so  on.  On  other  fountains  we  find 
such  motives  as  an  eagle  carrying  off"  a  hare,  a  woman  (Venus)  holding  a 
dove,  a  cock,  &c. 

In  certain  places  in  the  city  the  various  pipes  met,  forming  a  sort  of 


sheaf,  with  brass  keys  to  regulate  the  supply  of  water.     It  is  curious  to 
notice  that  the  tall  brick  pillars  near  the  fountains  have  a  groove  running 


The  Stepping-stones  and  the  Footways 

the  whole  length  of  one  side.  The  object  of  this  is  not  quite  clear,  but  it 
must  have  had  some  connection  with  a  system  of  forcing  up  the  water.  On 
some  of  these  pillars  the  iron  clamps  that  fastened  the  pipes  still  remain, 

2  A 


1 86 


POMPEI:   THE  CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


and  the  marks  of  the  pipes  are  clearly  visible.  The  apparatus  was 
probiibly  used  to  supply  the  conduits  which  fed  the  jets  in  the  viridaria  and 
atria. 

There  were   also   cisterns   in    Pompei,    supplementing   the   fountains, 

which  may  have  dried  up  in  summer. 
Mazois  makes  some  observations  on 
this  subject :  "  The  careful  arrange- 
ments for  catching  water  in  Pompei 
seem  at  first  sight  inconsistent  with 
the  large  number  of  fountains  found 
in  the  city  and  the  ruins  of  an  aque- 
duct that  I  discovered  there.  But  a 
closer  study  of  the  subject  has  sug- 
gested a  probable  explanation  :  that 
the  supply  of  running  water  by  means 
of  an  aqueduct  was  of  a  later  date 
than  the  conquest  of  the  city  by  the 
Romans  ;  indeed,  the  workmanship  of 
nearly  all  the  fountains  bears  no  re- 
semblance to  the  types  of  Greek  art" 
"The  aqueduct  itself,"  Mazois 
continues,  "of  which  but  few  traces 
remain,  has  all  the  appearance  of  a  Roman  construction,  and  resembles  the 
more  modern  buildings  found  in  the  excavation  of  the  city.*  Lastly,  the 
political  status  of  the  city  before  the  conquest  hardly  warranted  its  carrying 
water  at  a  great  expense  from  the  independent  territory  of  Stabile,  a  town 
with  which  it  had  no  community  of  municipal  interests.  These  reasons 
incline  me  to  believe  that  the  use  of  the  cisterns  was  of  an  earlier  date  than 
the  construction  of  the  fountains,  and  that  it  was  only  kept  up  by  force  of 
conservative  habit." 


Fountain  in  the  Street  of  No!n,  opposite  the  Casa 
delta  Caccia 


*  The  earthquake  of  the  year  63  would  have  probably  destroyed  earlier  buildings. 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— IN DUSTRIES 


187 


The  streets  are.  as  a  rule,  straight.     They  are  often  narrow,  though 
wide  when  compared  with  the  close  alleys  of  more  modern  cities.     Paved 


The  Fountain  of  the  Cock 


with  polygonal  blocks  of  lava,  they  have  a  clean  and  well-kept  appearance; 
the  footway  is  a  thick  layer  of  levelled  mortar,  in  which  are  embedded  bits 
of  marble  and  terra-cotta,  sometimes  symmetrically  arranged. 

Although  regularity  is  generally  the  enemy  of  the  picturesque,  these 


i88 


POMPEI:  THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 


THE    STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


189 


well-made  streets  give  an  impression  of  luxury  and  good  taste  exceedingly- 
pleasant  to  the  eye,  which  is  undisturbed  by  detail,  for  the  ancient  houses 
are  very  bare  and  simple  on  the  outside. 

Several  houses  have  mceniana  (balconies  overhanging  the  street), 
destined  to  increase  the  size  of  the  upper  rooms,  and  these  balconies  closely 
resemble  the  Arab  momharabias.      In  fact,  several  narrow  lanes  in  the  city 


Crossways  (Bivium)  of  the  Street  of  &illust  (Consular  Way) 

have  a  very  oriental  look,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  we  find  the  Graeco- 
Roman  house  in  Africa,  and  even  in  Persia,  at  the  present  day. 

If  the  smaller  streets  of  the  city  preserved  the  coolness  so  much  prized  in 
hot  climates,  the  main  streets,  on  the  other  hand,  are  wide  and  open,  and 
offer  beautiful  views  of  the  surrounding  country.  The  Street  of  Stabise 
looks  down  into  the  valley  of  the  Sarnus,  and  from  the  end  of  the  Street  of 
Nola  the  mountains  of  the  Abruzzi  appear  in  perspective.* 

In  summer  the  main  streets  of  the  city  glow  with  colour  in  the 
luminous  atmosphere,  and  the  grey  tufa  walls  of  the  Samnite  period  take  on 

♦  See  coloured  plate  No.  II. 


an  infinity  of  delicate  gradations.  But  in  the  short  winter  days  the  shadows 
hang  heavy  on  the  rain-soaked  walls ;  a  change  comes  over  the  land  and  the 
ruins.  The  depth  of  the  misty  penumbra  gives  a  new  charm  to  the  soil,  the 
russet  vegetation  of  which  harmonises  so  well  with  the  red  bricks  of  the 
fissured  walls,  the  last  traces  of  the  Roman  period.  Even  Vesuvius  at  times 
puts  on  a  diadem  of  white,  and  the  sun  flashes  back  on  the  city  from  her 
crown  of  immaculate  snow. 


II 


THE  WALLS,   ADVERTISEMENTS,   SIGNS  AND   INSCRIPTIONS 


T 


H  E  more  frequented  streets  in  the  city  were  lined  with  shops  much 
like  our  own,  facing  the  street,  and  furnished  with  marble  counters, 
shutters  for  closing,  and  doors  running  in  sliding  grooves.     The 

shopkeepers  did  their  best  to  attract  customers 
and  draw  attention  to  their  wares  by  street- 
signs.  Thus,  two  men  carrying  an  amphora 
was  the  sign  of  a  wine-seller  ;  a  goat,  that  of  a 
milkman  or  a  cheesemonger  ;  a  mask,  that  of 
an  actor  ;  while  a  kind  of  chess-board  may 
have  been  either  the  sign  of  a  maker  of  mosaics 
or  of  a  gaming-house.     The  tools  and  imple- 


Sign  of  a  Wine-seller  ( Polychrome 
Teira-cotU) 


ments   used   bv   masons    and    labourers   were 

also  represented,  and  a  phallus  was  frequently 

added    to    the   various    symbols,    as     it    was 

supposed    to   bring   good  luck  in  business  by 

neutralising    evil    influences   and    warding    off 

the  evil  eye.     Sometimes  the  front  of  a  small 

house  was   painted   in    various   colours   or   in  Marble  sign  of  a  Milkman 

squares  of  red,  white,  and  green,  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  passers-by. 

In  addition  to  these  signs,  with  their  simple  and  obvious  symbolism, 
inscriptions  were  largely  used  as  a  means  of  advertisement.  Inscriptions 
painted  in  red  or  black  are  still  to  be  seen  here  and  there  in    Pompei ; 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


191 


others  are  written  in  charcoal,  but  the  majority  of  the  wall-inscriptions  are 
scratched  with  the  style.     Lapidary  inscriptions  are  chiefly  to  be  found  in 


Marble  Siga 


Marble  Sign 


Terra-cotta  Sign 


Marble  and  Terra-cotta  Sign 


Marble  and  Terra-cotta  Sign 


public  buildings  on  the  pedestals  of  statues,  but  they  were  sometimes  used 
on  a  smaller  scale,    as  records  of  a  gift,  as   ex-votoes,  or   as   tokens   of 

friendship. 

A  very  noticeable  feature  at  Pompei  is  the  number  of  Oscan  and  Latin 


■  93 


POMPKI:    THE    CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND   ART 


lapidar)'  inscriptions,  perpetuating   the   name   of 
some  benefactor  of  the  city.     We  learn,  for  in- 
stance, that  V.  Popidius,  the  son  of  Epidius,  built 
porticoes;    that    L.    Sepunius    Sandilianus    and 
Lucius  M.  Heren- 
nius,  duumviri juri 
dicundo,   set    up   a 
bench  and  a  clock 
Terracotta  Sign  in  the  city  at  their 

own  expense ;  that  a  certain  Pompeian  built 

a  temple,  that  another  restored  it.  and  that 

a  third  gave  the  pavement.     These  inscrip- 
tions give  a  curious  impression  of  the  very 

human  self-importance  of  these  provincials 

whose  fortunes  allowed  them  to  spend  money 

in   gifts   to   the   city.      All    the    inhabitants 

were  made  aware  of  the  munificence  of  their 

bankers  and  ardiles,  who,  indeed,  were  elected 

for  such   qualities,  and   whose  names  were 

hmded    down    on    their    statues   m    fnfu.-^ 

Liicii       bldiues     to     future  Front  of  a  shop,  Region  IX.  insula  V 

generations.  It  was,  perhaps, 
as  a  satire  on  these  pom- 
pous inscriptions  that  some 
wit  announces  in  the  lapidary 
style  that,  during  the  Con- 
sulate  of  L.  Nonius  Aspre- 
nas  and  A.  Plotius,  an  ass 
was  born  to  him. 

Inscriptions  painted  with 

Mason's  Sign  (Tufa)  ,  , 

a   brush    were   used   for  all 
ord,„ar).   purposes,   and   especially  for  election   posters,    bills  announcing 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


193 


public  spectacles,  and  notices  of 
houses  to  let.  In  one  of  these  last 
we  read ;  "In  the  Insula  Arriana 
Polliana,  belonging  to  Alifius  Ni 
gidus  Major,  to  be  let,  from  the 
next  Ides  of  July,  shops,  with  their 


/"'J 


'U''H       W-f       N       -S  'ii/llUalilim         \  Pedcetal  of  the  Statue  of 

^   '■'  ^.        J     ■  .■aaMM'.^^  pcrgula:  and  cccnac 


Holconius  Rufus,  Street  of 
Abundance 


canacula  (rooms  in  the 

Inscription  on  Marble  Upper    StOrey). 

Another  inscription  runs  as  follows  : 

IN  •  PR/HDIS  •  IVLI^  •  SP  •  F  •  FELICIS  • 

LOCANTVR    BALNEVM  •  VENERIVM  •  ET   NOGENTVM  •  TABERN^E 

PERGVLiE    CENACVLA-EX    IDIBVS  •  AVG  •  PRIMIS  •  IN 

I    DVS  •  AVG  •  SEXTAS  •  ANNOS  •  CONTINVOS  •  gUINQVE 

S  •  Q  •  D  •  L  •  E  •  N  •  C  •  - 

"  To  let  in  the  property  of  Julia  Felix,  daughter  of  Spurius,  from  the  next  Ides  of  August  to  those 
of  the  sixth  year  hence,  a  bath,  a  venereum  (secret  room)  and  ninety  shops, />tr^«/<£  (booths)  and  upper 
rooms." 

The  seven  initials  at  the  end  correspond  to  the  seven  words  indicated 
by  Fiorelli. 

SI    QVINQVENNIM    DECVRRERIT   LOCATIO  ERIT  NVDO  CONSENSV 
**  After  the  term  of  five  years  the  tenancy  will  continue  by  simple  agreement." 

Sometimes  the  walls  of  a  house,  near  the  doorway,  were  covered  with 
complimentary  inscriptions  in  honour  of  the  master  of  the  house,  if  he  were 
a  rich  and  influential  man  :  Nummiano  feliciter!     These  good  wishes  were 

•  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  1136. 

2  B 


t^ 


194 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


not  always  to  the  taste  of  tlie  men  to  whom  they  were  addressed,  who 

knew   the    interested   motives   of  their   authors.     Thus,    one   of    Plautus' 

IWSVIA  •  >^iX>JX  characters  declares,   "  I   do  not  want 

J\)UIAI4\j;h/AUB-)^lDl'X/VAf  my  doors  covered  with  compliments 

C)iM'raCVM5'SV|S-Er.C0Evn^Ml\      scrawled  in  charcoal. 
^^SU^'  Er;DOMy$-C0N0\r(n)R  There  were  also   inscriptions  on 

VlQ/W'KVAl'iQi-  public  schools  ;  one  on  the  school 

lascriptioo  of  Vema  informs  us  that  the  estab- 

lishment was  under  the  patronage  of  Capella,  whose  promotion  to  the  ofifice 
of  duumvir  was  much  to  be  desired. 

CAPELLAM     DVIDOVF-  VERNA  CVM    DISCENT  •  ROG  .  « 

Capdlam  duumviium  juri  dicundo  oral  ut  facialis  Vcrna  cum  disantibus  rogant. 

Another  schoolmaster,  Valentinus,  whose   house  was  opposite  that  of 
Verna,  supported  tlie  a^diles  Sabinus  and  Rufus : 

SABINVM  •  ET  •  RVFVM 
MD  •  D  •  R  •  P  •  VALENTINVS  •  CVM 
DISCENTES  •  SVOS  •  ROG  •     (Sic.)  f 

A    painting   found    in   a   third  school    represents   the   birching   of  a 
scholar   by   the    master,   while 
the   other   pupils  are  at  work 
at  their  lessons. 

In  order  to  fully  under- 
stand the  other  inscriptions  that 
are  given  in  this  book,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  give  a   brief 

account     of     the     different     Ian-  The  school  (Paiming  in  the  Naples  Miueum) 

guages  in  use  in  Pompei  and  to  take  a  rapid  survey  of  the  alphabets. 
This  will  lend  an  additional  interest  to  the  graffiti,  which  are  one  of  the 
most  curious  features  of  the  city,  for  in  these  life  reveals  itself  without 
disguise  in  a  variety  of  unexpected  details. 

•  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  694.  f  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  698. 


.W^^''^'**-^ 


III 


LANGUAGES   SPOKEN    IN    POMPEI-THE   WRITINGS  IN    USE-THE 

ALPHABETS 

WE  may  make  a  brief  excursion  into  this  epigraphic  domain,  under 
the   guidance   of  the  various   scholars   who   have   studied   the 

question. 
Greek,  Oscan,  and  Latin  were  spoken  at  Pompei.  The  old  Oscan 
dialect  was  understood  by  the  people  even  down  to  the  late  period  of  the 
city's  history,  for  the  Atellan  farces  were  written  in  this  patois,  the  racy 
vigour  of  which  was  much  appreciated  at  Rome.  The  Oscan  inscriptions 
discovered  in  Pompei  are  an  additional  proof  that  the  old  national  language 
was  not  forgotten,  and  that  it  was  still  read  and  spoken  in  the  old  Oscan 
families,    who    jealously    kept    up   this   ancient   bond   of    union    between 

them. 

Father  Garrucci,  in  fact,  made  a  collection  of  Oscan  graffiti,  and  of  Latin 
words  written  in  the  Oscan  alphabet,  just  as  Latin  words  have  also  been 
found  written  in  Greek  characters.  In  the  inscriptions  traced  with  a  style, 
substitutions,  additions,  and  transcriptions  of  letters  are  frequent,  for  the 
graffiti  were  often  the  work  of  the  lower  classes. 

Although  Greek  inscriptions  are  rare  in  Pompei,  the  language  was 
spoken  and  understood  throughout  Campania  (the  coins  of  Naples  have 
Greek  inscriptions),  but  its  use  was  confined  to  the  educated.  Greek 
literature  was  so  much  admired  that  the  very  women  spoke  the  language 
fluently— a   practice   which   was   natural    enough    in    Pompei,    but   which 


«94 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


If 


not  always  to  the  taste  of  the  men  to  whom  they  were  addressed,  who 

knew   the    interested   motives   of  their  authors.     Thus,    one   of    Plautus' 

IWSVIA  •  MUllXNA  characters  declares,   "I   do  not  want 

^Pr^l^wf'.^.Mi?*^'?'^^'  '"y  doors  covered  with  compliments 


C)^M^facvM5SYis-[r.coENrKcvi\ 
Fq^Esm-  Er-ooMy$.coNoYcn)R 

Inscription 


scrawled  in  charcoal. 

There  were  also   inscriptions  on 
the  public  schools  ;  one  on  the  school 


of  Verna  informs  us  that  the  estab- 
lishment was  under  the  patronage  of  Capella,  whose  promotion  to  the  office 
of  duumvir  was  much  to  be  desired. 

CAPELLAM     DVIDOVF-  VERNA  CVM    DISCENT  •  ROG  .  « 

Capdlam  duumvii  um  juri  dicundo  orat  til  facialis  Vcrna  cum  discentibus  rogant. 

Another  schoolmaster,  Valentinus,  whose  house  was  opposite  that  of 
Verna,  supported  tlie  a;diles  Sabinus  and  Rufus  : 

SABINVM  ■  ET  •  RVFVM 
.liD  •  D  •  R  •  P  •  VALENTINVS  •  CVM 
DISCENTES  •  SVOS  •  ROG  •    (Sic.)  f 

A   painting   found   in   a   third  school    represents   the   birching   of  a 


M^^^->^ 


scholar   by  the    master,   while      ^yf^ 
the   other   pupils  are  at  work 
at  their  lessons. 

In  order  to  fully  under- 
stand the  other  inscriptions  that 
are  given  in  this  book,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  give  a   brief 

account     of     the     different     Ian-  The  school  (Paimlng  in  the  Naples  Mmeuin) 

guages  in  use  in  Pompei  and  to  take  a  rapid  survey  of  the  alphabets. 
This  will  lend  an  additional  interest  to  the  graffiti,  which  are  one  of  the 
most  curious  features  of  the  city,  for  in  these  life  reveals  itself  without 
disguise  in  a  variety  of  unexpected  details. 

•  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  694.  f  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  698. 


Ill 


LANGUAGES  SPOKEN   IN    POMPEI-THE  WRITINGS  IN    USE-THE 

ALPHABETS 

^^TTE  may  make  a  brief  excursion  into  this  epigraphic  domain,  under 
yy        the   guidance   of  the  various   scholars   who   have   studied   the 

question. 
Greek,  Oscan,  and  Latin  were  spoken  at  Pompei.  The  old  Oscan 
dialect  was  understood  by  the  people  even  down  to  the  late  period  of  the 
city's  history,  for  the  Atellan  farces  were  written  in  this  patois,  the  racy 
vigour  of  which  was  much  appreciated  at  Rome.  The  Oscan  inscriptions 
discovered  in  Pompei  are  an  additional  proof  that  the  old  national  language 
was  not  forgotten,  and  that  it  was  still  read  and  spoken  in  the  old  Oscan 
families,    who    jealously    kept    up   this   ancient   bond   of    union    between 

them. 

Father  Garrucci,  in  fact,  made  a  collection  of  Oscan  graffiti,  and  of  Latin 

words  written  in  the  Oscan  alphabet,  just  as  Latin  words  have  also  been 
found  written  in  Greek  characters.  In  the  inscriptions  traced  with  a  style, 
substitutions,  additions,  and  transcriptions  of  letters  are  frequent,  for  the 
graffiti  were  often  the  work  of  the  lower  classes. 

Although  Greek  inscriptions  are  rare  in  Pompei,  the  language  was 
spoken  and  understood  throughout  Campania  (the  coins  of  Naples  have 
Greek  inscriptions),  but  its  use  was  confined  to  the  educated.  Greek 
literature  was  so  much  admired  that  the  very  women  spoke  the  language 
fluently-a  practice   which   was   natural    enough    in    Pompei,    but   which 


Itev 


196 


POMPEI  :   THE   CITV,    ITS    LIFE    AND   ART 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS-INDUSTRIES 


<97 


,  fj 


became  an  affectation  elsewhere,  exciting  the  wrath  of  Juvenal,  who  was 
provoked  that  a  woman  should  think  she  could  not  be  charming  if  she 
had  not  got  "the  Grecian  air."  Greek  was  the  language  of  their  most 
intimate  passions.  They  made  love  in  Greek :  "  My  life  and  soul ;  ZQH 
KAI  ^FYXH,"  a  term  of  endearment,  preserved  at  Pompei  in  an  inscription 
written  on  the  wall  of  a  passage  in  the  house  of  Popidius  Priscus. 

While,  on  the  one  hand,  it  was  fashionable  to  speak  Greek,  on  the 
other  the  Roman  women,  when  they  used  their  own  language,  clipped 
their  words,  affecting  a  slight  hesitation,  like  stammering,  and  this  faulty 
pronunciation  had  come  to  be  looked  upon  as  charming,  says  Ovid.  Persius 
also  relates  that  in  his  time  it  was  considered  very  elegant  to  speak  throu«^'h 
the  nose  :  Raucidu/iwi  quiddam  balba  de  nave  locutus. 

Even  apart  from  these  affectations,  Latin  was  not  spoken  in  its  purity. 
Graecisms  are  not  unusual  in  Pompei,  and  the  Oscan  dialect  had  an  influence 
on  the  pronunciati(jn  of  Latin  which  persists  in  the  Neapolitan  dialect. 
Thus,  in  the  first  line  of  the  yEneid,  written  by  a  person  not  very  familiar 
with  Latin,  and  who  probably  had  an  Oscan  accent,  the  r  is  replaced 
by  an  /:  "Alma  vilumque  cano  Tlo  .  .  .,"  for  "  Arma  virumque  cano 
Trojae."  * 

We  may  now  note  the  characteristic  features  of  each  writing. 

The  Roman  lapidary  alphabet  is  well  known  by  the  capital  letters 
we  ourselves  use,  but  in  Pomi)ei  a  few  variations  have  crept  into  the 
alphabet.  Thus,  E  is  formed  by  two  parallel  vertical  lines,  and  F  is 
formed  thus,  P.  L  is  written  Ii  ;  M,  IIII  ;  and  N  PL  From  the  time  of 
Sylla  the  long  I  is  represented  by  an  I  taller  than  the  other  letters, 
found  especially  in  lapidary  inscriptions. 

The  letters  usually  used  in  cursive  hand,  written  with  a  pointed 
instrument,  are  a  combination  of  lapidary  characters  and  cursive  proper, 
and  in  practice  this  gives  a  mixture  of  regular  and  abridged  letters. 

The  notices  and  advertisements  painted  with  a  brush  are  generally 
*  In  modern  Naples  the  common  people  pronounce  r  like  /. 


VwcflftaP'  v\'Sxcm'VirJA!/'aw\vi 


written  in  rustic  capitals  (specimens  of  which  are  given),  especially  the 
electioneering  placards. 

vvT^anvirt47)iHei]3^>aN 

Alphaliets.     Oscan  (retrograde  writing),  Greek,  and  Roman  (after  Gamicci) 

Uncial  writing   was  not   in    use   until   long   after    capital,    and   was 
employed  in  the  transcription  of  edicts 
and  in  making  copies  of  literary     III' 
works.    It  has  rounded  forms,  and  the 

V    resembles    the    modern     U.        In    the     Electioneering  inscription  in  Rustic  capitals  (VicodiTesmo) 

illustration  we  reproduce  a  painted   inscription  found   in    Pompei  which 

^   ^  ^  A  approximates  to  this  type. 

^^    m^   T^  1    I  I      1   \       1   m   1  Cursive  writing  with 

W    I  J    ^  I    l\\  IVIV7A\  a  pointed  instrument  is  the 

(I    J\ttf>*Vk  V^\|^  next  in  order* 

A  ^       Im^       ^R     fli         ^¥  The  letter  A  is  usually 

Y   I  I     ^        1  I  f  IL    '     1  formed  by  three  strokes ; 

^     ^J       ^J        ^  Jf^b   '^  '"  ^^^^  ^^^  instances  the 

.      ,  /T      xM  ,     1,  vv »  middle  stroke  is  wanting  ; 

Electioneering  Inscription  written  in  Uncial  (Region  VI,  Insula  xv. ) 

occasionally  it  is  isolated,  perpendicular,  or  attached  to  one  of  the  sides,  and 
forms  an  opposite  angle  to  the  angle  of  the  vertex. 

B  is  formed  like  D,  but  the  stroke  that  is  carried  upwards  is  longer 
than  in  D,  and  has  a  more  decided  curve. 

*  See  Inscriptions  gravies  au  trait  surUs  murs  dc  PompH,  par  le  P.  G^rrucci.     Brussels,     i  vol. 
in  ^to. 


■» 


■P 


198 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND   ART 


Exanipl 


C  generally  preserves  its  usual  shape,  with  more  or  less  curve. 


Ex.-implos 


(/?TY 


The  cursive  D  is  formed  on  the  0.  and  varies  somewhat  from  the  uncial 
type. 

E  has  not  always  the  three  horizontal  strokes,  and  the  crescent-shaped 
€  is  essentially  cursive.  The  form  ((  has  been  considered  as  proper  to 
Campania,  though  it  came  originally  from  Central  Italy. 

Examples  /^  ^  t    ^  ^    (    (^  (    ^   ^  A  (^ 

F  is  uniform  in  many  inscriptions,  and  the  form  I'  is  also  used  in 
cursive  writing. 

G  is  easily  recognisable,  but  in  undecided  writings  the  curve,  like  that 
of  C,  is  only  slightly  marked. 

H  sometimes  has  the  left  stroke  very  much  developed  in  cursive. 


I'xamples 


V/Kfiy;)^ 


I  is  always  the  same,  only  more  or  less  slanted. 

Kxamples  l  \    /     f 

K  may  be  mistaken  for  H,  and  in  some  cases  the  two  strokes   are 
horizontal. 


Example; 


KKfi^^h 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPITONS— INDUSTRIES  199 

L  is  like  F  (I')  reversed. 

Examples  C    t  ^  L  L  \^\^  \\     1^    \L   [ 

M  always  has  four  strokes,  but  sometimes  they  are  separated  from 
each  other,  sometimes  crossed,  the  two  middle  strokes  forming  an  angle  the 
vertex  of  which  points  upwards. 

N  can -also  be  written  in  three  separate  strokes  with  the  points  turned 


back. 

Examples 


iill^\'^'^  \7) 


O  is  sometimes  confused  with  A,  but  one  of  the  two  strokes  is 
always  rounded. 

Example*  <^     ^0^)6'    \)    A  a  C\  D 

In  P,  which  may  be  easily  mistaken  for  R,  the  oblique  stroke  is  more 
sinuous,  and  the  straight  stroke  is  sometimes  curved  in  this  letter,  but  never 
in  R. 


Examples 


> 


^^r^^^f^■^t^'''~' 


Q  is  always  represented  in  the  form  shown  in  the  illustration. 

Examples 

R  has  no  peculiarity  which  has  not  been  noticed  under  the  letter  P. 

))  /^  ^  />  t"  ^  T 

S  is  sometimes  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  G  in  cursive,  and  even 
resembles  an  I  occasionally,  its  characteristics  are  so  ill-defined  in  certain 
writings,  but  one  of  the  two  volutes  is  nearly  always  indicated. 

Exaaiples 


\ 


198 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPITONS— INDUSTRIES 


199 


Examplr!- 


C  generally  preserves  its  usual  shape,  with  more  or  less  curve. 


Examples 


1  he  cursive  D  is  formed  on  the  0.  and  varies  somewhat  from  the  uncial 


type. 


Examples 


^^6^^^^\v^l/|^^i)'^^i^u^ 


E  has  not  always  the  three  horizontal  strokes,  and  the  crescent-shaped 
€  is  essentially  cursive.  The  form  ((  has  been  considered  as  proper  to 
Campania,  though  it  came  originally  from  Central  Italy. 

Examples  /^^  /  (t  t    1^  ^    (    (^  (    ^   ^  ^1  ^^ 

F  is  uniform  in  many    inscriptions,   and  the  form  I'  is  also  used  in 
cursive  writing. 

G  is  easily  recognisable,  but  in  undecided  writings  the  curve,  like  that 
of  C,  is  only  slightly  marked. 

H  sometimes  has  the  left  stroke  very  much  developed  in  cursive. 
I  is  always  the  same,  only  more  or  less  slanted. 

Kxamples  I  \    /      f 

K  may  be  mistaken  for  H,  and  in  some  cases  the  two  strokes   are 
horizontal. 


Fxamples 


Example? 


KK^f/h 


L  is  like  F  (I')  reversed. 

Examples  ^    ^  /^  L  L  1^(-  |n     I^    \L   [ 


^ 


M  always  has  four  strokes,  but  sometimes  they  are  separated  from 
each  other,  sometimes  crossed,  the  two  middle  strokes  forming  an  angle  the 
vertex  of  which  points  upwards. 

N  can  'also  be  written  in  three  separate  strokes  with  the  points  turned 
back. 


Examples 


Examples 


iiii^\>^'^r7) 


O  is  sometimes  confused  with  A,  but  one  of  the  two  strokes  is 
always  rounded. 

Examples  <^     \^  0  ^  0    i)    A  ^  C\  D 

In  P,  which  may  be  easily  mistaken  for  R,  the  oblique  stroke  is  more 
sinuous,  and  the  straight  stroke  is  sometimes  curved  in  this  letter,  but  never 
in  R. 


Examples 


> 


^^r^^^fftt^'''"' 


Q  is  always  represented  in  the  form  shown  in  the  illustration. 


Examples 


R  has  no  peculiarity  which  has  not  been  noticed  under  the  letter  P. 


Examples 


))/J^/''l^r^ 


S  is  sometimes  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  G  in  cursive,  and  even 
resembles  an  I  occasionally,  its  characteristics  are  so  ill-defined  in  certain 
writings,  but  one  of  the  two  volutes  is  nearly  always  indicated. 


Examples 


20O 


POMPEI:   THE   CITV,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


/ 


V  ' 


T   has  always  the  same  shape,    but  the  vertical    stroke   is   often    to 
the  right  or  left  of  the  horizontal  stroke. 


Examples 


]-]-l^nrm 


The  V  with  a  rounded  base  is  found  in  the  later  period  at  Pompei,  and 
sometimes  resembles  a  Y  when  one  of  the  two  strokes  forming  the  angle  is 
carried  too  far  down. 


Examples 


^^i\ 


\iVVv\X<^UUu/ 


X  varies  little  in  shape,  but  sometimes  it  approximates  to  N. 


Examples 


Y 


^<^^y 


Y  always  has  its  characteristic  form,  but  in  rare  cases  it  approximates 


to  T. 


Elxauuples 


■jn  fr  » 


There  is  no  evidence  of  the  use  of  Z   in  cursive  hand,  according  to 
Father  Garrucci. 


IV 


THE  GRAFFITI 

THE^r^/2  are  so  numerous  that  special  collections  have  been  made 
of  them.     A  great  many  of  these  inscriptions  are  very  interesting, 
and  worth  quoting.      We  will  first  take  the  graffiti  traced  by  lovers 
who  confided  their  passion  to  the  walls  of  the  city. 

SCRIBIINTI  •  MI  •  DICTAT  •  AMOR  •  MONSTRATQVII  •  CVPIDO 

•  •  •  PIIRIIAM  •  SINII  •  TII  •  SI  •  DIIVS  •  IISSII  •  VIILIM 

Scribenti  mi  dictat  Amor,  monstratque  Cupido  [ad  ?]  peream  !  sine  te  si  deus  esse  velim.'--' 

"  Love  dictates  the  words  I  write,  and  Cupid  shows  the  way.     May  I  perish,  if  I  would  wish 
to  be  a  god  without  you  !  " 


And  again 


Or. 


And 


VALE  •  MEA  •  SAVA  •  FAC  •  ME  •  AMES  f 
"  Dear  Sava,  love  me,  I  pray  you !  " 

NIIMO  •  IIST  •  BIILIVS  •  NISI  •  QVI  •  AMAVIT  • 
MVLIIIII    IIM   ADVIRJ 
"  There  is  nothing  more  beautiful  than  to  love." 


"  Nonia  salutes  her  friend  Pagurus." 
"  My  little  doll,  he  who  belongs  to  thee  entirely,  sends  me  to  thee." 


Farther  on,  there  are  the  good  wishes  of  the  gallants  of  Nola  to  the 
girls  of  Stabiae. 

A  very  charming  graffito  runs  as  follows : 

•  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  1928.  f  IhH.  2414.  {  Ihid.  1883. 

2C 


n3 


aoa 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


I) 


Methe  CtnHtnias  atellana  amat  Ckrcstum.  Corde  sit  utreisqiu  Venus  Pompeiana  propitia  tt  semper 
coHcordis  vcivant:'- 

"  Methe,  the  daughter  of  Cominie,  who  plays  in  the  Atellan  farces,  loves  Chrestus  with  all 
her  heart.  May  the  Venus  of  Pouipci  look  favourably  on  them  both,  and  may  they  always  live  in 
harmony  together." 

Advice  is  given  to  lovers  in  this  graffito: 

Qmtsquis  amut,  calidis  non  debit  fvntib-s  uti:  Nam  nemo  fiammas  ustas  amare  potest.  \ 
"  He  who  loves,  must  not  use  hot  water,  for  a  burnt  man  cannot  love  the  flames  [of  love] ." 

An  angry  lover  upbraids  Venus  herself: 

Quisquis  amat,  veniat,  Veneri  volo  /rangere  castas 
Fustibus  et  lumbos  debiliture  deae. 
Si  potest  ilia  mihi  tenerum  pertundere  pectus 
Quit  ego  non  passim  caput  ilia  Jrangere  Juste  ?  J 

A  courtesan  is  taunted  with  the  words  : 

Felices  {[{cTjas,  pirias  sed  [M'^rtia  {si\  te  Vili  [de]  »  [o]  W  .  .  .  maxima  cura  .  .  .  a{(\  e.% 

The  most  beautiful  of  the  graffiti,  however,  is  an  epitaph  preserved  in 
the  Naples  Museum: 

OVTINAM  •  LiCEAT  •  COLLO  •  COMPLEXA  •  TENERE  •  BRACIOLA  •  ET  •  TENERIS 

OSCULA  •  FERRE  •  LABELIS  •  INUNC  •  VENTIS  •  TVA  •  GAVDIA   PVPVLA  •  CREDE 

CREDE.    MIHI  •  LEVIS  •  EST   NATVRA  •  VIRORVM  •  S^PE  •  EGO  •  CV   MEDIA 

VIGILARE  •  PERDITA  •  NOCTE  •  H^C  •  MECVM  •  MEDITAS  MVLTOS 
FVRTVNAQVOS  SVPSTVLIT  ALTE  •  HOS  •  MODO  •  PROIECTOS   SVBITO 

pri€cipitesqve  premit  •  sic  •  venvs  •  vt  •  svbito  •  conivnxit 
Corpora  •  amantvm  •  dividit  •  lvx  et  se 

PARIES    QVID  AMAII 

0  utinam  liceat  collo  complexa  tenere 
Braciola  et  teneris  [tenera]  oscula  ferre  labellis 

1  nunc  [et]  ventis  tua  gaudia,  pupula,  crede. 
[Pupula]  crede  mihi,  levis  est  natura  vivorum. 

Ssepe  ego  cum  media  vigilare[m]  perdita  nocte, 
Hsec  mecum  meditans,  multos  quos  sustulit  alte 
Fortuna  hos  modo  prcjectos  subito  prsecipitesque  premit 
Sic  Venus  ut  subito  conjunxit  corpora  amantum 
Dividit  lux  et  .  .  . 


'»!' 


*  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  2457. 
<5  Ibid.  1 173. 


f  Ibid.  1898. 


X  Ibid.  1834. 

11  FioreUi's  Guide-book. 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


203 


"  O  would  I  could  hold  your  little  arms  about  my  neck  and  softly  kiss  your  soft  lips  I  Go 
now,  little  girl,  and  give  your  joys  to  the  winds  !  Dear  girl,  believe  me,  light  is  the  nature  of  men. 
Ofttimes  when  I  lay  awake  at  midnight  (lost  in  my  thoughts),  pondering  these  things  in  my  mind. 
I  said  :  •  Many  of  those  whom  Fortune  has  raised  aloft  are  fallen  and  cast  down.  So  Venus,  after 
she  has  once  linked  lovers'  bodies,  sunders  them,  and  .  .  .'" 

We  often  find  on  the  walls  phrases  of  this  kind  : 

ROMVLA   HICCVM   STAPYLO   MORATVR* 

And  in  another  place,  among  the  inscriptions  scratched  with  the  style, 
a  reward  is  offered  for  a  lost  article  : 

VRNA  .ENIA   PEREIT  •  DE  •  TABERNA 
SEI  gVIS  •  RETTVLERIT  •  DABVNTVR 

H • SIXV • SEI  •  FVREM 

DABIT.  VNDIS  .  .  .  M 
IMVAPII  .  .  .f 

There  are  also  terms  of  abuse,  such  as  senium  (old  fool),  plane  spado 
(eunuch),  &c.  There  is  also  an  electioneering  poster  with  the  two  conven- 
tional abbreviations  : 

Q  •  POSTVMIVM  •  PROCVM 
JED  •  O  •  V  •  F  •  SEXTILIVS  •  VERVS  FACIT  \ 
1j.  "  Sextilius  Verus  makes  [this  inscription]  and  requests  his  fellow-citizens  to  nominate 
G.  Postumius  Procus  aedile." 

Willems  states  that  O.  V.  F.  is  an  abbreviation  of  the  words,  Oro  vos 
faciatis  (/  request  you  to  nominate),  and  we  read  in  an  ancient  inscription  : 

M  •  MARIVM   ^D  •  FACI  •  ORO  •  VOS.§ 

But  in  inscriptions  of  more  recent  date  the  three  letters  O.  V.  F.,  or  O.  F., 
are  substituted  for  the  whole  words. 


*  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  2060. 


t  Ibid.  64. 


\  Ibid.  1081. 


!$  Ibid.  61. 


\ 


_  « -    - , — -'  - 


^jn^  ■\      — 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


265 


V  ' 


i! 


I) 


ELECTIONS  AND   ELECTIONEERING   PLACARDS— THE   CORPORATIONS— 

THE   MAGISTRATES 

TH  E  walls  of  Pompei  were  at  all  times  used  as  the  a/du/?/,  where  each 
man  recorded  his  loves  and  hates ;  but  at  one  time  in  the  year — 
that  of  the  municipal   elections — they  were  covered  with  painted 
inscriptions  in  which   the  names  of  the  candidates  were  posted  up,  often 
regardless  of  some  poster  of  a  previous  election. 

Willems  states*  as  a  result  of  a  careful  examination  of  the  originals,  that 
the  candidates  for  the  office  of  aidile  who  had  the  most  inscriptions  were 
Casellius  and  Cerrinius ;  and  for  the  duumvirate,  M.  Holconius  Priscus. 
These  three  must  have  been  candidates  in  the  last  elections  held  in  Pompei. 
The  numbert  of  their  programmes  also  goes  to  prove  this,  and  the  most 
recent  bills  are  naturally  the  most  legible. 

The  electioneering  notices  that  are  in  existence  are  later  than  the 
earthquake  of  the  year  63  a.d.,  and  amongst  the  candidates  for  the  month  of 
March  79  a.d.  we  find  the  names  of  several  Pompeians  whose  houses  we  shall 
examine  later  on. 

The  names  of  the  candidates  for  the  last  elections  are  given  by 
Willems  as  follows  : 

For  the  office  of  a;dile  :  M.  Casellius  Marcellus ;  M.  Cerrinius  Vatia ; 

•  Les  elections  municipalei  de  Pimfiei. 

f  The  number  of  electioneering  notices  in  Pompei  amounts  to  almost  2000,  divided  between 
1 16  candidates. 


\ 


L.    Popidius   Secundus ;    C.    Cuspius    Pansa ;   Cn.    Helvius   Sabinus ;    L. 
Albucius  Celsus. 

For  the  duumvirate  :  M.  Holconius  Priscus  ;  L.  Caius  Secundus ; 
C.  Gavius   Rufus ;   C.  Calventius  Sittius  Magnus. 

The  citizens  of  Pompei,  as  we  see,  had  three  names,  like  the  Romans 
of  the  Republican  period — aLpr^rnomen,  a  nonien  gentilicium,  and  a.  cqg-nomen, 
which  served  to  distinguish  the  members  of  the  same  family.  The />ra- 
nomen  and  the  nomen  gentilicium  or  family  name  (Gens  Cassia,  Cerrinia, 
Popidia,  Cuspia,  &c.)  together  formed  one  name,  which  was  handed  down 
from  father  to  son.  This  was  the  general  rule  in  Pompei,  but  some 
families  kept  up  the  old  custom  of  the  Republican  period,  of  giving  the 
prcenonien  of  the  father  to  the  eldest  son,  and  different  prcenomina  to 
the  other  sons ;  while  the  nomen  gentilicium  and  the  cognomen  were 
handed  down  together. 

Pompei,  as  a  free  borough,  was  governed  by  two  bodies  of  magistrates, 
each  consisting  of  two  members — two  duumvirs  jure  dicundo,  whose  office 
was  somewhat  like  that  of  a  mayor,  and  included  a  certain  amount 
of  local  jurisdiction,  and  two  aidiles,  who  were  responsible  for  the  drainage 
of  the  city,  exercised  supervision  over  the  markets,  and  arrested  criminals. 
In  all  municipia  there  were  also  two  quaestors,  who  had  charge  of  the 
municipal  treasury,  but  at  Pompei  this  office  was  filled  by  the  duumvirs, 
according  to  Willems.  Lastly,  there  was  the  Communal  Council,  consisting 
of  one  hundred  members,  the  decurions,  recruited  chiefly  from  among  the 
ex- magistrates  of  the  city.* 

As  we  have  seen  in  the  various  inscriptions,  candidates  were  recom- 
mended for  election  by  public  notices;  people  who  lived  in  the  same  quarter 
of  the  city  combined  to  support  their  special  candidate,  and  influential 
electors  recommended  their  friends  : 

•  According  to  Mau,  the  executive  of  Pompei  may  be  summarised  as  follows: 

Samnite  period. — A  judicial  assembly  (hombetiniom,  convcntus),  the  head  of  which  was  the 

medixtucticus,  over  a  quaestor  and  two  aediles. 

Roman   period. — Decurions,  two   duumvirs  juri   dicutido,  two    aediles;   later,  there  were  the 

duumviri  quinquennales,  and  prefects  yuri  dicundo. 


n 


Li» 


> 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


265 


I) 


ELECTIONS  AND   ELECTIONEERING   PLACARDS— THE   CORPORATIONS- 

THE   MAGISTRATES 

TH  E  walls  of  Pompei  were  at  all  times  used  as  the  album,  where  each 
man  recorded  his  loves  and  hates ;  but  at  one  time  in  the  year — 
that  of  the  municipal   elections — they  were  covered  with   painted 
inscriptions  in  which  the  names  of  the  candidates  were  posted  up,  often 
regardless  of  some  poster  of  a  previous  election. 

Willems  states*  as  a  result  of  a  careful  examination  of  the  originals,  that 
the  candidates  for  the  office  of  a;dile  who  had  the  most  inscriptions  were 
Casellius  and  Cerrinius ;  and  for  the  duumvirate,  M.  Holconius  Priscus. 
These  three  must  have  been  candidates  in  the  last  elections  held  in  Pompei. 
The  numbert  of  their  programmes  also  goes  to  prove  this,  and  the  most 
recent  bills  are  naturally  the  most  legible. 

The  electioneering  notices  that  are  in  existence  are  later  than  the 
earthquake  of  the  year  63  a.d.,  and  amongst  the  candidates  for  the  month  of 
March  79  a.d.  we  find  the  names  of  several  Pompeians  whose  houses  we  shall 
examine  later  on. 

The  names  of  the  candidates  for  the  last  elections  are  given  by 
Willems  as  follows  : 

For  the  office  of  a;dile  :  M.  Casellius  Marcellus ;  M.  Cerrinius  Vatia ; 

*  Lt%  eUctions  munUipales  de  P(mf)ii. 

f  The  number  of  electioneeriDg  notices  in  Pompei  amounts  to  almost  2000,  divided  between 
116  candidates. 


\ 


L.    Popidius   Secundus ;    C.    Cuspius    Pansa ;   Cn.    Helvius   Sabinus ;    L. 
Albucius  Celsus. 

For  the  duumvirate:  M.  Holconius  Priscus;  L.  Caius  Secundus; 
C.  Gavius   Rufus ;   C.  Calventius  Sittius  Magnus. 

The  citizens  of  Pompei,  as  we  see,  had  three  names,  like  the  Romans 
of  the  Republican  period — 2^  prcenomen,  a  nomcn  gcntilicium,  ^nAdi  cognomen, 
which  served  to  distinguish  the  members  of  the  same  family.  The/r^- 
nom^n  and  the  nomen  gentilicium  or  family  name  (Gens  Cassia,  Cerrinia, 
Popidia,  Cuspia,  &c.)  together  formed  one  name,  which  was  handed  down 
from  father  to  son.  This  was  the  general  rule  in  Pompei,  but  some 
families  kept  up  the  old  custom  of  the  Republican  period,  of  giving  the 
pranomen  of  the  father  to  the  eldest  son,  and  different  prcrnomina  to 
the  other  sons ;  while  the  nomen  gentilicium  and  the  cognomen  were 
handed  down  together. 

Pompei,  as  a  free  borough,  was  governed  by  two  bodies  of  magistrates, 
each  consisting  of  two  members — two  duumvirs  Jure  dicundo,  whose  office 
was  somewhat  like  that  of  a  mayor,  and  included  a  certain  amount 
of  local  jurisdiction,  and  two  aediles,  who  were  responsible  for  the  drainage 
of  the  city,  exercised  supervision  over  the  markets,  and  arrested  criminals. 
In  all  municipia  there  were  also  two  quaistors,  who  had  charge  of  the 
municipal  treasury,  but  at  Pompei  this  office  was  filled  by  the  duumvirs, 
according  to  Willems.  Lastly,  there  was  the  Communal  Council,  consisting 
of  one  hundred  members,  the  decurions,  recruited  chiefly  from  among  the 
ex- magistrates  of  the  city.* 

As  we  have  seen  in  the  various  inscriptions,  candidates  were  recom- 
mended for  election  by  public  notices;  people  who  lived  in  the  same  quarter 
of  the  city  combined  to  support  their  special  candidate,  and  influential 
electors  recommended  their  friends  : 

•  According  to  Mau,  the  executive  of  Pompei  may  be  summarised  as  follows : 

Samnite  period. — A  judicial   assembly  (koinbenniom,  conventus),  the  head  of  which  was  the 

medixtucticus,  over  a  quaestor  and  two  sediles. 

Roman   period. — Decurions,  two  duumvirs  juri    dicundo,  two    aediles;    later,  there  were  the 

duumviri  quinquennales,  and  prefects  )Mrt  dicundo. 


t' 


1 


k 


I) 


2o6  POMPEI  :    THE    CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 

ERASTVS  CVPIT  •  ^D  C^SELLIVM  * 

Casellius  Marcellus,  a  candidate  for  the  oflBce  of  aedile,  was  well 
supported  by  no  less  than  eighteen  notices  posted  up  by  his  neighbours. 
Places  on  a  wall  were  let  by  a  certain  T.  Genialis,  a  baker,  to  those  who 
wished  to  find  room  for  electioneering  appeals. 

CASELLIVM    MARCELLVM 
MD  •  ROG  •  VICINI 
< 

The  exact  number  of  electoral  districts  into  which  Pompei  was  divided 
has  not  been  determined.  Authorities  are  agreed  in  supposing  that  there 
must  have  been  six,  and  three  have  been  already  discovered — the  Forenscs, 
the  Salinienses,  and  the  Campanienses.  The  Forenses  must  have  occupied 
the  district  near  the  Forum  ;  the  Sa/inienses  the  quarter  lying  between  the 
Gate  of  the  Seashore  and  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum,  not  far  from  the  Sa/ines 
of  Hercules  already  mentioned.  The  Campanienses  are  supposed,  from  indi- 
cations in  the  notices,  to  have  been  the  inhabitants  of  the  eastern  side  of 
the  town,  near  the  Gate  of  Nola.  Among  them  would  have  been  found  the 
descendants  of  the  old  Oscan  families  who  had  been  driven  back  to  this 
side  of  Pompei,  where  there  is  an  Oscan  inscription  over  the  city  gate.  All 
the  candidates,  however,  have  Latin  names,  irrespective  of  the  nationality 
of  their  families.  Thus,  one  N.  Popidius  Priscus  had  a  retrograde  inscrip- 
tion in  his  house,  proving  that  the  same  family  had  occupied  the  same 
house  for  many  generations.  The  Holconii  were  among  the  best-known 
families  in  Pompei.  One  Holconius  was  five  times  elected  duumvir  and 
twice  quinquennalis ;  he  was  also  2iflamen  of  Augustus,  and  had  received 
the  title  of  "patron  of  the  colony."  His  father  also  held  office  in  the  city, 
and  the  great  theatre,  as  we  know,  was  built  at  the  expense  of  the  Holconii. 
Epidius  Sabinus,  Vettius,  and  Pansa,  owners  of  large  houses,  were  also 
well-known  names  in  Pompei. 

If  these  personages  were  sure  of  success  in  the  municipal  elections,  the 

*  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  179. 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


107 


other  candidates  were  not  in  the  same  case ;  and  the  elections  must  have 
been  keenly  contested,  with  ten  candidates  for  four  places.*  The  result  of 
these  elections  was  extremely  problematical ;  hence  Cicero  writes  that  it 
was  easier  to  be  a  senator  at  Rome  than  a  decurion  at  Pompei.  All  citizens 
who  had  attained  their  majority  were  electors,  but  all  were  not  eligible. 
Candidates  had  to  be  over  a  certain  age,  and  to  be  possessed  of  means  and 
of  a  stainless  character.     According  to  Willems,  election  was  secured  by  a 


Electioneering  Notices 

relative  majority  of  votes  in  an  absolute  majority  in  the  number  of  polling 

stations. 

The  elections  to  fill  up  municipal  offices  took  place  yearly — three 
months  before  the  expiration  of  the  term  of  office,  which  began  and  ended 
in  July.  Women  had  no  votes,  but  they  took  a  great  interest  in  the 
elections,  and  their  influence  must  have  been  considerable,  for  they 
publicly  recommended  their  candidate  =;  for  office.  The  following  is  a 
reproduction  of  an  electioneering  notice  : 

•  WUlems. 


% 


w 


. ^J,.     . —  .— — ^» 


■^ 


3o8 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


209 


') 


M  •  CASELLIVM  •  ET  •  L  •  ALBVCIVM 

STATIA  •  ET  •  PETRONIA  •  ROG 

TALES  •  GIVES  •  IN  •  COLONIA  •  IN  ■  PERPETVO 

"  M.  Casellius  and  L.  Albacius  are  recommended  for  office  by  Stabia  and  Petronia.     May 
there  always  be  such  citizens  in  the  colony  !  " 

The  candidates  who  were  most  vigorously  supported,  however,  were 
those  recommended  by  the  various  corporations  of  Pompei,  as  follows : 

The  ^oidsrmihs' (orifices)  demanded  Cuspius  Pansa  as  ledile. 

The  pastry  cooks  {clibanarii)  were  in  favour  of  Trebius. 

The  poulterers  (gallinarii)  supported  the  candidatures  of  Epidius, 
Suettius,  and  Helvius. 

The  fishermen  [piscicapi)  preferred  Popidius  Rufus. 

The  perfumers  {unguentarii)  and  the  barbers  (tonsores)  recommended 
Trebius. 

The  dyers  (offectores)  voted  for  Postumius  Proculus. 

The  fullers  (fuliones),  of  whom  there  was  a  large  number  at  Pompei, 
supported  various  candidates,  among  them  Ceius  Secundus. 

The  clothiers  (sagarii)  were  for  Rufus. 

All  the  fruitsellers  {pomarii)  and  Helvius  Vestalis  were  in  favour  of 
M.  Holconius  Priscus.  They  also  recommended  Vettius,  Enius  Sabinus, 
and  Cerrinius. 

The  husbandmen  {agricola)  adopted  Casellius  as  their  candidate. 

The  cartwrights  {lignarii plostrarii)  named  Marcellus. 

The  woodsellers  (lignarii)  were  in  favour  of  Holconius. 

The  bakers  (pisiores)  supported  the  candidature  of  Julius  Polybius. 

There  is  also  another  notice  in  favour  of  this  last  candidate ; 

C  •  IVLIVM  •  POLYBIVM 

JEH  •  o  •  V  •  f  •  PANEM  •  BONVM  •  PERT* 

"  Name  C.  Julius  Polybius  scdile  ;  he  brings  good  bread." 

The  porters  (saccarii)  record  their  vote  for  Cerrinius  Vatia  and  for 
Aulus  Vettius. 

*  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  429. 


All  the  muleteers  (miiliones)  were  for  Cuspius  Pansa  and  Julius 
Polybius. 

Even  the  worshippers  of  Isis  (Isiaci)  and  of  Venus  (Vcneri)  took  part 
in  the  canvassing : 

CVSPIVM  •  PANSAM  •  ^D 
POPIDIVS  NATALIS  •  CLIENS  •  CVM  •  ISIACIS  •  ROG  ■•■ 

PAgVIVM     DID 
VENERI  •  ROGANTf 

On  some  occasions  every  one  is  in  favour  of  the  same  candidate : 

L  •  POPIDIVM  •  SECVNDVM 
^DILEM  •  POPVLVS   ROGAT  J 

Even  the  very  "  ball-players "  (pilicrepi)  had  their  candidate,  Vettius 
Firm  us. 

At  Pompei,  as  we  see,  every  corporation  was  keen  to  defend  its  own 
interests,  and  each  group 
united  for  the  contest :  every 
elector  who  was  a  member 
of  a  professional  association 
voted  fully  cognisant  of  the 
politics  of  his  party.  Thus 
representatives  of  the  guild 
of  carpenters  are  depicted  in 

a  painting  in   Pompei,   with     ^^  TO'^ 

-■--  - — ,, 

the  baculus  in  their  hands, 
and  carrying  on  their 
shoulders  the  fercuium,  on 
which    stands    a     miniature    Vi^;*^^ 

building      hung      with      small  carpenters.     (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

vases.      Daedalus,   the  patron  of  carpenters,  stands  over  the  body  of  his 

nephew  Icarus,  whom  he  has  just  slain  by  piercing  his  head  with  a  nail. 

*  Owp.  insc.  pomp.  101.  f  Ihid.  1146.  +  ibid.  1045. 

2  D 


'r 


iV^,. 


'  ■^    -      —  —  ^-»—  —  ■» 


aio 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND   ART 


\ 


I 


i| 


Statuettes  of  sawyers  and  planers  complete  the  group,  in  allusion  to 
Daedalus  as  the  inventor  of  the  saw  and  plane.  This  painting  has  a  curious 
likeness  to  the  well-known  chcf-dceuvre  carried  in  procession  by  the 
carpenters  with  stout  canes  in  their  hands  on  the  Feast  of  their  patron 
St.  Joseph,  in  modern  times.* 

These  guilds  and  corporations  were  very  prosperous,  and  their 
members  met  together  in  the  schola,  a  hall  given  for  their  use  by  some 
influential  patron,  such  as  the  priestess  Eumachia,  who  protected  the 
fullers.  The  sckola  had  its  chapel  and  its  patron  gods,  and  the  album  of 
the  corporation  contained  a  list  of  all  the  members.  The  advantage  of 
these  unions  was.  that  the  corporation  brought  actions  to  defend  claims,  and 
even  exacted  privileges,  where  a  single  individual  would  have  failed,  and 
thus  protected  its  members  from  injustice  t 

In  addition  to  these  professional  guilds,  there  were  whimsical  societies 
which  required  no  more  from  their  members  than  tastes  in  common. 
Members  of  these  clubs  all  voted  for  the  same  candidate  to  a  man ;  the 
Society  of  Sleepers  {dormientes)  and  the  Cut-purses  (furunculi)  voted  for 
Vatia. 

VATIAM  •  JEH  •  ROGANT  VATIAM  •  JED 

MACERIO  •  DORMIENTES  FVRVNCVLI  •  ROG  § 

VNIVERSI  •  CVM  .  .  .\ 

A  candidate  of  the  Society  of  Sleepers  must  have  been  elected,  for  a 
graffito  has  been  discovered  which  runs :  "  Macerior  begs  the  a^dile  to 
prevent  the  people  from  making  a  noise  in  the  streets,  disturbing  the  good 
folks  who  are  asleep."  These  uproarious  Pompeians  must  have  been  the 
Late-Drinkers,  who  formed  a  society  the  members  of  which  did  not 
always  return  to  their  homes  before  morning.  They  were  in  favour  of 
Cerrinius  Vatia  : 

*  In  a  painting  in  the  catacombs  there  is  a  master  carpenter,  in  his  *'gala  dress,"  holding  a 
long  cane  with  a  knob  like  those  used  by  vergers.     (See  Saglio,  art.  Daculus.) 

j  The  corporations  of  the  ancien  regime  in  France  before  1789  were  founded  on  the  ancient 
corporations,  which  modern  syndicates  are  endeavouring  to  reestablish. 

:  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  575.  g  ;^^  j^g. 


^1 


THE  STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


21  I 


MCERRINIVM 
VATIAM  •  yED  •  o  •  V  F  •  SERI  •  BIBI 

VNIVERSI  •  ROGANT 
SGR  •  FLORVS  •  CVM  •  FRVCTO  .  .  .* 

Sometimes    the    inscription    proposes   a   mutual    exchange   of    good 
offices  :  Sabinum   (edilem   Procule  fac  et  ilk  te  faciei.     "  Proculus,  name 
Sabinus  aidile,  and  he  will  name  you 
in  turn !" 

Nearly  all  the  inscriptions  are 
painted  on  the  wall  at  about  the 
height  of  a  man,  and  it  is  very 
unusual  to  find  them  lower  down,  for 
the  outer  walls  of  the  houses  were 
covered,  below  a  certain  level,  with 
a  coat  of  whitewash  or  stucco,  forming 
a  kind  of  dado,  which  is,  as  a  rule, 
untouched  by  the  advertiser. 

Special  places,  alba,  were  used 
for  this  purpose  ;  and  on  various  pub- 
lic buildings  there  were  panels  such 
as  those  we  see  on  the  Building  of 
Eumachia,  or  in  a  picture  in  the  Naples 
Museum  representing  people  reading  the  notices.  The  municipal  edicts  and 
the  orders  of  the  Emperors,  however,  were  not  only  published  in  this  official 
manner ;  there  were  manuscript  journals  for  this  purpose,  of  which  a  small 
number  of  copies  were  made  and  sent  all  over  the  Roman  Empire,  f 

*  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  581. 

f  Pliny  relates  that  these  "  Acta  popuH  Romani"  mention  the  various  facts  he  himself  quotes. 
Tacitus  also  tells  us  that  these  daily  acta  (journals)  were  eagerly  read  at  Rome,  especially 
during  meals.  Dion  Cassius  relates  that  Livia  had  the  names  of  those  who  had  the  honour  of 
coming  to  salute  her  in  the  morning  published  in  the  annals— a  piece  of  flattery  that  was  much 
appreciated  by  them.  The  example  set  by  princes  was  followed  by  private  persons,  who  noted 
down  everything  that  happened  to  them,  as  we  see  in  the  Trimalchio  of  Petronius. 


Album  of  the  Building  of  Eumachia.    Wall  of  the  Street 
of  Abundance 


I*MM 


MP'-IL*'^'"^ 


312 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


!H 


Hitherto  not  a  sinjrle  book  or  papyrus  has  been  discovered,  and  no 
librar>%  though  a  library  was  found  at  Herculaneum.  Yet  Pompei,  though  it 
was  not  an  intellectual  centre,  must  have  had  some  inhabitants  who  owned 
libraries.  Poets  were  much  appreciated  at  Pompei ;  fragments  of  their 
works  were  scribbled  on  the  walls  by  the  common  people  ;  and  the  sign  of  a 
bookseller  has  been  found  near  the  Gate  of  Stabire.  All  literary  works  no 
doubt  perished  in  the  catastrophe. 


^ie&^-Mii^*riiife«^ik^Mii^  d 


VI 


THE   RECEIPTS  OF  THE   BANKER  JUCUNDUS— WAX  TABLETS— THE 

NOTATION   IN    USE 

AFTER  \.h^ graffiti,  the  principal  specimens  of  cursive  writing  are  the 
tablets  of  the  banker  Jucundus,  whose  head  is  reproduced  here, 
from  a  bronze  bust  standing  on  a  marble  column  upon  which  is  the 
inscription : 


GENIOL  •  NOSTRI    FELIX   L  • 
"  To  the  genius  of  our  Lucius,  Felix  erected  this." 

The  banker  is  a  man  of  some  fifty  years,  with  shrewd  and  distrustful  eyes, 
an  obstinate  mouth,  and  the  satisfied  expression  of  a  selfish  epicurean.  He 
has  a  little  wart  at  the  base  of  his  left  cheek,  recalling  the  pendulous  gland 
of  the  satyrs,  many  of  whose  characteristics  he  seems  to  have  shared. 

His  business  in  life  was  buying  and  selling,  as  is  shown  by  the  wax 
tablets  found  in  his  house  in  1875,  in  a  box  placed  in  a  sort  of  niche  or 
recess  above  a  door. 

These  semi-carbonised  tablets  consist  of  small  panels  of  pine,  held 
together  by  a  framework,  and  connected  by  cords  passed  through  holes  bored 
on  one  side.  They  were  taken  to  Naples  with  infinite  precautions,  but 
they  split  and  crumbled  when  they  came  in  contact  with  the  air,  and  it  was 
only  by  dint  of  the  greatest  patience  and  skill  that  Professor  de  Petra,  Director 
of  the  Naples  Museum,  succeeded  in  deciphering  them.*  They  are  receipts, 
written  in  Latin,  with  the  exception  of  two  in  Greek.  Out  of  the  132  that 
Jucundus  had  signed,  127  have  been  translated,  and  116  refer  to  sales  by 

•  Le  tavoUtte  cerate  di  Pompei.    By  Professor  de  Petra. 


mtr: 


« 


214 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    I.S    LIFE   AND   ART 


Bronze  Bust  of  the  Banltw  L.  Cxcilius  Jucundus 
(Naples  Museum) 


auction  in   which  the  banker  acted  as 
auctioneer.     De    Petra  remarks  that  a 
sale  by  auction   was  not  a  forced   sale 
demanded  by  the  creditors,  but  was  the 
usual   procedure  in  ordinary  sale;   and 
that  the  words  auctiottari  and  auctionem 
facerc  became  synonymous  with  vendere. 
The  banker  Jucundus,  who  presided  at 
the  sales,*  made  his  profit  on  them  by 
lending  buyers  the   ready  money  they 
needed  for  their  purchases,  at  the  rate  of 
2  per  cent,  per  month,  on  bills  which  fell 
due  at  the  end  of  the  month.     He  ran 
up  the  bidding  at  the  sale,  taking  his 
commission  on  the  prices  as  well  as  on 

the  total  of  the  transactions.      Not  content  with  these  profits,  Cacilius  was 

also  manager  of  the  communal  estates, 

and   farmed   out  pasture-lands,  a   field, 

and  a  fuller's  shop,  for  the  municipia. 
The  following  is  a  transcription  of 

one   of  the   documents    relating    to    a 

contract  of  Ca^cilius  Jucundus: 

"  HS  .  N  .  I  33  00  00  CO  DLXII.  gnse  pecunia 
in  stipulatum  L.  Caecili  venit  ad  auctionem  Pulliae 
Lampuridis  mercede  minus. 

"  Persoluta  habere  se  dixit  Pullia  Lampuris  ab 
L.  Caecilio  Jucundo. 

"Act.  Pomp.  X.  K.  Januar  Nerone  Cajsare  II. 
L.  Cxsio  Martia  Cos. 

"  L.  Vedi  Cereti,  A.  Caicili  Philolog.,  Cn  Helvi.,  ^.«_.^.^^— ^ 

Apollon.,  N.   Fabi  Crusero,   D.  Vole.     Thalli    Sex      w     ^^  t .        ,.     . 

p  A     •     u     r,    o       •  „  t»aiu,  sex.      Wax  Tablet.     Receipt  of  the  Banker.  L.  C.  Jucundui 

Pomp.  Axsioch.,  P.  Sextl  Primi.  C.  Vibi  Alcimi.  (Naples  Museum) 

-Nerone  C«sare  II.  L.  L.  C«sio  Martiale  Cos -X.  K.  Januarius  Sex.   Pompeius  Axiochus 
scnps.  rogatu  Pulha.  Lampuridis  earn  accepisse  ab  L.  Ccilio  Jucundo  sester  nummum  octo 

*  Boissier,  Promenades  archiologiques. 


'^»'4m| 


ittiii 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


2'5 


millia  quingenti   sexages   dnmpundius    ob   auctionem    ejus   ex    interrogatione    facta   tabellarum 
signatarum." 

Translation. — *•  Sesterces  8562  {£(36  17s.  gd.).  This  sum  is  placed  to  the  credit  of  Pullia 
Lampuris,  as  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  by  auction  (ad  auctionem)  held  by  L.  Csecilius,  wilh  the 
expenses  deducted. 

"  Pullia  Lampuris  declares  she  has  received  the  entire  amount  from  the  hands  of  Caecilius 
Jucundus. 

"  Made  at  Pompei,  the  tenth  day  before  the  Kalends  of  January  (December  23,  57  a.d.),  during 
the  consulate  of  Nero  Czsar,  consul  for  the  second  time,  and  L.  Csesius  Martialis. 

(Here  follow  the  names  of  the  eight  witnesses.) 

"In  the  consulate  of  Nero  Caesar,  consul  for  the  second  time,  and  of  Caesiiis  Martialis,  on  the 
tenth  day  before  the  Kalends  of  January,  at  the  request  of  Pallia  Lampuris,  we,  Sex.  Pompeius 
Axiochus,  be^r  witness,  in  writing,  that  Pullia  Lampuris  has  received  from  Lucius  Jucundus  the 
sum  of  eight  thousand  five  hundred  and  sixty  sesterces,  and  a  duumpundum*  the  proceeds  of  a 
sale  by  auction,  in  accordance  with  a  signed  and  sealed  agreement." 


Terracotta  Money  boxes  (Museum  of  Pompei) 

Several  of  Jucundus'  agreements  are  composed  of  five  tablets,  of  which 
the  first  and  last  are  used  as  covers  for  the  rest,  and  are  bhnk  ;  the  second 
tablet  gives  the  agreement,  the  third  the  names  of  the  witnesses,  and  the 
fourth  an  abstract  of  the  agreement. 

The  other  receipts  refer  to  credits  granted  to  PolHa  Messis,  Gn.  Alexius 
Cryseus,  N.  Blaesius  Fructio,  Umbricia  Antiochis,  &c.,  and  to  the  purchase 
of  a  slave  at  the  price  of  2500  sesterces  (^20). 

The  tablets,  covered  with  wax,  were  written  on  with  a  pointed  instru- 
ment of  iron,  bone,  or  bronze,  called  the  sfy/us  or  graphium.  The  broad 
end  of  the  style  was  used  to  erase  mistakes  and  spread  the  wax  afresh. 
Hence  the  well-known  expression,  vertere  stylum  (to  turn  the  style),  which 
means  to  correct  a  work.     These  tablets  were  used  as  rough   drafts  of 

znc  '^'  The  coins  in  use  in  Pompei  were :  The  as,  the  unit  of  value  in  Roman  money ;  the  double 
as  (duumpundum) ;  the  quadrans  =  \  as  ;  the  sextans  =  ^  as.  The  silver  and  copper  sestertius  =  2^  asses, 
or  about  zd.  The  denarius  =  4  sesterces.  The  quinarius  (or  half-denarius)  =  about  4d.,wRS  a  silver 
coin  ;  the  bigatus,  one  of  the  most  ancient  Roman  coins,  and  the  quadrigatus  were  so  called  because 
the  coins  were  stamped  with  a  car  for  two  or  four  horses.  This  coin  was  the  silver  denarius.  The 
gold  denarius  was  the  aureus,  and  was  worth  from  i8s.  ^.  to  21s.  Sd. 


\] 


f 


i<i^^ 


Mfe 


Li«  rfytii]l»l!jfe  %aeit» 


'■■""^^■•l""-    T 


'    '  i 


li 


I 


*tii' 


ai6 


POMPEI:   THE  CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


works  which  were  afterwards  copied  out  with  an  arundo  or  calamus 
(reed  pen)  or  penna  (quill  pen)  on  to  papyrus  or  parchment  {tnembramcn). 
A  bronze  pen  shaped  like  our  modern  pen  was  found  in  Pompei  on 
June    26,    1875,    together   with    some    slabs   prepared     for    coating   with 


wax. 


♦11* 


The  figures  written  at  the  top  of  Jucundus'  agreement  are  arranged 
in  a  somewhat  curious  fashion.  The  Roman  numbers,  up  to  a  thousand, 
were  denoted  by  capital  letters,  which  we  have  adopted.  The  number 
500  was  originally  represented  by  I D,  which  afterwards  became  D ; 
the  letter  M  (1000),  which  was  a  Greek  sign,  was  not  always  in  use. 
At  Pompei  the  number  1000  was  written  CI  3,  or  denoted  by  a  sign  like 
a  modern  eight  placed  horizontally,  00.  The  number  written  on  the  tablet 
may  therefore  be  deciphered 
as  follows  : 

133  stands  for  five  thou- 
sand, for  the  number  io.ckx)  is 
written  CCI  33.  Then  came  the 
three  signs  00  oo  00 ,  which  re- 
present  three  thousand,    and    the  inkstand.  Papym,,  and  Tablet 

two  numbers  added   together  give   8000.     The  other   figures  follow  the 
notation  still  in  use. 

Among  the  unusual  variations  from  this  notation  are  the  following : 
the  number  200  is  written  CC,  or  expressed  by  an  S  placed  hori- 
zontally, in.  2000  is  written  IIc/5,  but  the  last  sign  is  only  an  indi- 
cation of  place,  and  did  not  count  by  itself.  50,000  was  written  1333; 
90,000  =LXXXXc/5,  and  1 00,000= CCCI  333.  Other  signs  were  used 
in  addition  to  the  regular  numerical  notation,  and  the  Greek  6  was 
equivalent  to  1000.  Above  a  hundred  thousand,  special  signs  were 
probably  used. 

*  Declarations  of  love  sent  to  a  mistress  were  often  written  on  waxed  tablets,  and  were  then 
called  rxUlliani. 


VII 


TH£  TAVERNS-THE   POPINA,   THE  THERMOPOLIA— THE   INNS— 

THE    PUBLIC    KITCHENS 

IN  the  course  of  our  study  we  have  had  occasion  to  refer  to  various 
callings  mentioned  in  inscriptions.  We  have  seen  the  protected  trade- 
guilds  defending  their  rights  in  the  struggle  for  existence;  we  have 
caught  a  glimpse  of  the  libertines,  the  lovers,  the  drunkards,  the  candi- 
dates and  electors  of  Pompei,  in  the  graffiti.  The  paintings  in  the  houses 
show  us  the  very  habit  of  the  men,  "their  form  and  vesture."  Their 
history  becomes  complete,  the  picture  takes  on  life,  the  Pompeians  pass 
before  us.  We  must  now  follow  them  into  the  taverns,  inns,  and  wine- 
shops of  the  city. 

There  were  wine-shops  at  all  the  crossways,  and  even  in  other  places. 
In  fairness  we  must  add  that  there  were  always  fountains  opposite.  These 
places  were  called  by  a  variety  of  names:  there  were  the  amopolium, 
taberna  vinaria,  and  caupona,  where  only  drinks  were  sold,  and  the  pop ina, 
or  "cook-shop,"  where  the  meat  generally  came  from  the  sacrifices,  and 
was  sold  to  dealers  by  the  popce ;  whence  the  name.  In  the  shop- 
windows  various  dainties  were  placed  to  bring  in  customers,  and  food 
was  sometimes  put  into  glass  jars  filled  with  water  to  increase  its  size  and 
attract  passers-by.  "Tarts  smoking  hot  from  the  oven"  were  also  sold 
there.  "  Slaves,  go  to  ih^popina;  off  with  you!"  writes  Plautus  in  the 
Prologue  10  the  Pcenulus,  These  shops  were  chiefly  frequented  by  the 
lower    classes,    who    sat    there    drinking   posca-^  drink    composed    of 

2  E 


% 
1^ 


^ 


i 


'^  -— -*--i*f"'Mn'  > 


.S^u^ka 


2l8 


POMPEI:   THE  CUT,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


2I( 


s 

H 


a 


I' 


water,  sour  wine,  and  beaten  eggs  —  served  them  by  the  co^a,  or 
barmaid. 

There  was  also  another  kind  of  tavern,  the  tkemiopolium,  where  hot 
drinks  were  sold,  murrhina,  mulled  wine,  and  hydromelum.  These  houses 
were  used  as  places  of  assignation  and  brothels,  and  Plautus  satirises  the 
"philosophers"  who  are  always  at  the  wine-shop :    "If  they  have  made  a 

little  money,  they 
wrap  their  faces  in 
cloaks  and  go  and 
get  a  hot  drink."  * 
/  For  these  visits 
the  Fompeians 
covered  their  heads 
with  the  cucuilus, 
a  hooded  cloak,  to 
avoid    recognition. 

Fountain  of  the  Eagle  and  the  H.-ire,  behind  which  is  the  Inn  of  FortunaUi  One     of     the      beSt 

known  of  these  houses,  much  frequented  by  the  citizens,  was  the  inn 
kept  by  Albinus,  whose  name,  ALBINVS,  served  as  a  sign  for  his 
house,  which  was  situated  near  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum.  In  the  stable 
were  found  the  bones  of  horses  and  mules,  the  tyres  of  wheels  and 
fragments  of  cars. 

The  footway  was  levelled  in  front  of  the  door  to  allow  carriages 
to  enter,  and  iron  rings  were  fixed  to  the  walls  of  the  courtyard.  There 
were  two  rooms  for  travellers  and  two  thermopolia,  the  inner  thertno- 
poliuni  being  a  private  room. 

The  inn  of  Fortunata,  whose  name  is  cut  on  a  pillar  outside,  was 
near  the  centre  of  the  town,  and  stood  behind  a  fountain  representing 
an  eagle  carrying  off  a  hare.  At  the  entrance  of  another  tavern  is  a 
dwarf  leading  an   elephant,  surrounded   by    the    serpent,   the  genius  loci, 

*  Curculio,  Act  II.  3. 


with  an    inscription    recording   that    Sittius   had   restored    the    elephant : 
** Sitiias  restituit  elepantu(fn)''  {sic). 

Customers   must  have   been    particularly   attracted   by   the  following 
notice : 

HOSPITIVM  •  HIC  •  LOCATVR  TRICLINIVM  •  CVM  •  TRIBVS  •  LECTIS   ET 

COMM[ODIS]* 
••  To  let,  a  triclinium,  with  three  beds  and  every  convenience." 

Farther  on  another  notice,  written  in   Oscan,  points  out  the  way  to 
a  tavern-: 

"Traveller,  if  you  walk  hence  to  the  second  turning  you  will  find  Sarinus,  son  of  Publius, 
who  keeps  an  inn.     Farewell !  " 

Another  innkeeper  has  an  amusing  notice  in  praise  of  the  quality  of  his 
hams : 

Vbi  perna  cocta  est,  si  convivce  apponitur, 

Non  guslat  pernam,  lingit  ollam  aut  caccabum.\ 

"  Once  one  of  my  hams  is  cooked  and  set  before  a  customer,  before  he  tastes  it,  he  licks  the 
saucepan  in  which  it  was  cooked." 

There  were  many  of  these  inns  in  Pompeii.  In  the  inns  kept  by 
Phoebus  and  by  Perennius  Nympherois,  houses  of  the 
same  class  as  the  thermopolium,  paintings  of  several 
tavern-scenes  were  found,  drawn  on  a  panel  divided 
into  four  compartments,  with  a  written  commentary. 
In  the  first  of  these,  two  young  men  are  embracing, 
and  one  of  them  is  saying.  Nolo  cum  murtali ;  in 
the  second,  a  woman  resists  the  overtures  of  a  young 
man,  while  the  copa  who  brings  in  the  wine  asks 
whom  she  is  to  serve.  In  the  third  division  two 
men  are  playing  at  dice  and  one  calls  a  six.  **  Not 
three,  but  two,"  returns  the  other,  holding  out  two 
fingers  of  his  hand  after  the  fashion  of  the  modern  Italian  playing 
fnora.  In  the  fourth  divisir)n  the  two  gamblers  have  come  to  blows  for  an 
unmentionable  reason,  and  the  innkeeper  turns  them  out,  bidding  them  go 

*  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  807  f  ihid.  1896. 


VOLO 


Painting  in  a  Wine-shop 
(Naples  Museum) 


I 


230 


POMPEI:    rHE   CITY,   ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


and    fijjht   elsewhere. 


t ' 


HOC 


OcAXWt 


The  spelling  of  the  inscriptions  is  not  that  of 
the  educated.  This  Low  Latin,  full 
of  Graecisms,  was  the  language  of 
the  common  people,  whose  manners 
and  customs,  as  represented  in 
these  tavern  scenes,  are  very  much 
those  of  the  Satyricon. 

Like  the  walls  of  the  streets, 

the  walls   of  the  wine-shops  were 

_ .  .         ....     .     ,v   .    X.        V  scribbled  over  with  graffiti,  full  of 

Psuntmg  111  a  \V  inc-shop  (Naples  MiKseuni)  •=*      ■*' 

personal  allusions  to  the  keeper  of  the  tavern  or  its  customers.    The  follow- 
ing statement  comes  from  Edon's  wine-shop,  the  haunt  of  the  Late- Drinkers  : 

[HjEDONII  .  DICIT  ^^^'  *^^ 

ASSIBVS  .  HIC 

BIBITVR  •  DIPVNDIVIIII 

SI    DIIDIIRIS   mill    LIORA 

BIBIIS  gVANTVS 

SI    DIIDIIRIS  VINA-  F 

FALIIRNA    BIB* 

•'  Edon  says,  here  for  an  a%  one  can  drink  ;  for  two  a%it% 
one  can  get  better  drink.  What  price  must  one  pay  for 
Falernian  wine  ?  " 


1?,l)tJATJ. 


Fainting  in  a  Wine-shop  (Naples  Museum) 

The  well-known  "'  Da  fridam  pusilium" 
("  Give  me  a  little  cold  water  ")  is  the  exclama- 
tion of  a  soldier  carrying  a  lance  and  wearing 
large  white  boots.  This  picture  is  reproduced 
in  a  coloured  plate  ;t  the  original,  like  all 
such  drawings,  is  very  rough  in  execution. 
It  comes  from  the  thermopolium  in  the  Street 
of  Mercury,  where  there  are  three  other 
groups   representing   scenes    not    found    in 


Painting  in  a  Wine-shop  (Naples  Museum)       Other    paintings. 
*  Corp.  insc.  pomp.  1679  bis. 


t  Coloured  plate  No.  III. 


\ 


n 


■li 


kX 


I'la^ww-t-y'  - 


PL.  VII 


i       1- 


II 


•ii 


■i 


•j- 


POMPEIAN     PORTRAITS 

1.   RRCION    IX   INSULA    I   No    7  4.    REGION    IX INSULA    V 

No  47 


No  II 


♦< 


2.    RRCION    VII    —    INSULA    I 

[House   of  Siriciis) 

3.     REGION      VI     —     INSULA     VII     —     No     21 


5.    REGION     VIII  IXSVI.A      IV     -         No      4 

(House  of  Ilolconius] 

6.   —    REGION    IX    —    INSULA    V    —    No    11 


I 


)\ 


} 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


221 


In  one  of  them,  four  people,  two  of  them  wearintr  the  cucullus,  are 
seated  round  a  three-legged  table,  eating  and  drinking.     Black-puddings 


n-mn 


i2 


rj,--.r>_..— ,^.^.-  -TV-  •'^'l 


^fV 


K>  jL : 


Painiin^s  in  the  Thermopolium  of  the  Street  of  Mercury 

and  light-coloured  sausages  {boviles  bolulus)  are  hung  up  on  the  carnarium, 
which  was  a  frame  with  hooks  for  meat. 

Farther  on  are  some  villainous-looking  dice-players.  Another  group 
represents  the  copa  asking  a  man  wearing  the  angusticlavis  to  pay  his  score. 
Lastly,  there  are  people  drinking,  muffled  in  their  cloaks  (lacerna),  and 


11; 

•it 

4f 


I. 


i)ii»inA..»  w  mnufK^^ 


322 


rOMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


223 


/ 


shod  with  black  slippers,  and  a  youth  making  love  to  a  girl  who  raises  a 
glass  to  her  lips. 

The  last  picture,  which  is  even  more  defaced  than  the  rest,  shows  how 
certain  liquids  were  conveyed  from  place  to  place.  The  hide  of  an  ox, 
sewn  together,  and  filled  through  the  opening  at  the  neck,  was  mounted  on 
a  waggon.  The  large  leather  skin,  when  full,  looked  very  like  a  hooped 
barrel.     The  opening  at  the  neck  was  tied  up,  and  a  smaller  one  was  made 


Public  Kitchen 


in  the  lower  part  of  the  hide  near  the  tail,  thus  forming  a  flexible  funnel 
through  which  the  liquor  was  poured  into  the  amphora. 

From  the  tap-room  of  the  tavern  we  see  the  wine-shop  and  the  street ; 
opposite  the  shop  stands  the  Fountain  of  Mercury.  Outside,  on  the  foot- 
way that  runs  by  the  houses,  there  is  a  counter,  on  the  top  of  which  are 
round  holes  to  fit  earthenware  jars  which  rested  on  the  ground.  On  one 
side  of  it  there  are  little  marble  steps,  on  which  were  placed  the  various 
utensils  used,  cenochoce,  canthari,  and  so  on. 

On  the  walls  were  hung  the  simpulum  and  the  trua — ladles  with  long 
handles  which  were  used  to  draw  wine  from  large  vessels — and  wine- 
strainers.  Some  counters,  especially  those  of  the  thirmopoiia,  had  at  their 
inner  end  a  special  place  where  an  earthenware  or  metal  chafing-dish  was 


a 


placed,  and  kettles  for  boiling  over  a  slow  fire,  like   the  Russian  samovars. 

Sometimes  there  is  an  inner  room,  with  a  stove  against  a  wall,  in  which  is  an 

opening  into  the  shop  ;  tarts  were  handed 

through    this   to   those   customers   who 

liked  them  smoking  hot. 

The    tavern    has   a   large   counter 

of   marble   of   various    colours,    and    a 

picture    at    the    back    of    the    taberna 

representing   a  hermaphrodite   Bacchus 

and    a   Silenus.     This  important   wine- 
shop is  the  only  one  in    the    Street  of 

Nola,  one   of    the    main    thoroughfares 

of  the  city  {Dccuminus  major).     It  was 

evidently  the  fashionable   wine-shop  of 

the   quarter   and    much    frequented    by 

customers    who   liked   good    wine ;    the 

size    of   the    rooms    behind    the    shop 

suggests  that  secret  parties  of  pleasure 

were  held  here. 

But   the   principal  inn  of  Pompei, 

where  travellers  and  their  horses  put  up,  lies  outside  the  city,  in  the  Pagus 

Augustus  Felix,  on  one  side  of  the 
Way  of  Tombs. 

This  inn  consisted  of  a  long 
building  with  arcades,  and  covered 
shops  in  terraces.  Travellers 
lodged  in  the  upper  rooms,  which 
commanded  a  fine  view  over  the 
sea  and  the  towns  on  the  coast. 
The   stables,  where  pieces  of  the 

harness  of  mules  and  spokes  of  wheels  were  found,  are  reached  through 


Bronze  Utensils  for  drawing  Wine  from  the  cra'ers  ; 
simpulum,  tru^e  (Naples  Museum) 


Small  Bronze  Utensils  for  decanting  and  drawing  Liquids, 
trucllae  (Naples  Museun<) 


224 


inner 


l'OMFi:i:   THH   CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 
courtyards   with    fountains.       But    there   is   nothing   to   show  that 


Marble  Counter  in  the  Wine-shop  of  the  Hermaphrodite  Rncchtis.  Street  uf  N'ola 

travellers  took  their  meals  at  this  inn  ;  taverns  were  numerous  in   Pompei 


Hostelry  in  the  Wav  of  Tombs 

from  which  meals  could  be  sent  in  to  customers.     Popinte  (eating-houses) 


THE  ^STREETS-INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


225 


sold   food,  and   dishes  were  certainly  sent  out,  or  fetched,   for  the  public 


Dish.  Chafing-dishes,  and  Wine-strainers  (Naples  Museum) 

kitchens   have    not   always   rooms   large   enough  for  diners,   and,   on  the 
other  hand,  the  small  houses  in   Pompei  have  no  kitchens. 


2  F 


T 


VIII 


THE   LUPANARIA   AND  THE  CELL.t    MERETRICI>€ 

HERE  are  several  lupanaria  in  Pompei ;  one  of  these  houses  consists 
of  a  vestibule,  into  which  open  small  cells  furnished  with  a  stone 
bed,  which  was  covered  by  a  mattress  and  cushions.      These  cells 

are  exceedingly  narrow, 
hardly   more    than   two 
yards     square.       Some 
of   them    have   a   little 
window  opening  on  the 
^   street,  while  others  were 
lighted    and    ventilated 
by    an    opening    above 
the    door   looking    into 
the  vestibule,  where  the 
lena  presided  behind  a 
partition.      Appropriate 
paintings   decorate    the 
vestibule,  and  the  walls 
of  the  cells  are  covered 
.  with^ra^//.*    The  im- 

TheVestilmleofaLupanar  pression    of   SOmC    CoinS 

of  Galba,  Vespasian,  and  Titus  are  to   be   seen    stamped   on    the   stucco 

VICTORIA   INVICTA    HIC. BENE    FVT  .  .  .  DIINARIO 


\\ 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


227 


when  it  was  new.  The  lairina  are  under  the  wooden  staircase  which 
leads  to  the  upper  rooms,  very  little  of  which  now  remains.  These 
rooms  were  reached  from  the  next  street,  the  Street  of  the  Balcony, 
for    the    lupanar    is    the   corner    house   between    two   roads.      The   main 


The  Via  del  Balcone  and  Via  del  Lupanare 

entrance  leading  to  the  vestibule  has   a   characteristic   emblem    over   the 
door. 

Very  little  was  found  in  the  house,  only  a  bronze  saucepan  (cacabus) 
full  of  onions  and  beans,  and  a  bronze  candelabrum  to  light  the  vestibule, 
which  must  have  been  very  dark  when  the  upper  storey  was  intact. 

Another  of  these  houses  was  found  in  the  Vico  dei  Scienzati — named 
after  the  men  of  science  who,  in  1845,  were  present  at  the  discovery  of  this 
lupanar,  from  which  is  taken  \}[i^  graj^to  signed  "  Venus  Jisica  po^npcianar 


'<', 

■■*! 


■*iL-.l 


238 


POMPEI  :   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


Besides  these  houses  where  the  scratiir  lived  in  common,  there  were 
single  cellee  me  re  trie  ice  in  certain  alleys  ;  they  are  on  the  ground  floor,  and 
open  directly  into  the  street,  having  no  communication  with  the  houses  in 

which  they  are  imbedded. 
These  cells,  like  the 
others,  have  a  stone  bed 
which  occupies  half  the 
room.  Not  far  away 
there  are  taverns  where 
the  scratiee  kept  watch 
on  the  streets.  The 
Vico  Storto,  the  winding 
street,  was  the  favourite 
haunt  of  debauchees,  and 
by  the  doors  of  houses  in  this  street  were  found  bronze  and  terracotta 
lamps,  ornamented  with  phallic  emblems.  The  rooms  of  these  houses 
had  characteristic  paintings  on  the  walls,  which  are  now  obliterated. 

Opposite  the  house  of  Siricus,  not  far  from  the  lupanar,  there  is 
another  of  these  cells,  with  a  well-worn  doorstep.  According  to  the  ancient 
custom,  the  name  of  the  "  Venus  of  the  Crossways  "  who  occupied  it  was 
no  doubt  inscribed  over  the  entrance,  and  immense  serpents  are  painted 
beside  the  door,  on  the  wall  of  the  neighbouring  house. 


Cclia  meretrici.i 


IX 


THE- SHOPS  AND   RECEPTACLES   IN    USE— WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES 

TH  I'^  frequented  streets  of  the  city  were  lined  with  shops  which  drove 
a  brisk  trade.     At  a  dealer  in  liquids,  vessels  full  of  clotted  oil  were 
found  ;    paints  were  discovered  in  some  shops,  and  may  be  seen  in 
the  museums  at  Naples  and  Pompei.         ^t^^^^^^vr, 


Many  shops  were  let,  as  we  know, 
as  separate  establishments  without 
living  rooms,  and  the  houses  of  rich 
landowners  stood  close  to  the  shops, 
which  even  sometimes  formed  the 
facade  of  their  dwellings.  In  these, 
the  stewards  and  servants  sold  the 
produce  from  their  masters  estate. 
Large  quantities  of  receptacles  and 
amphorae  of  all  shapes  and  sizes 
have  been  found  in  these  shops, 
where  they  may  still  be  seen,  stand- 
ing up  against  the  wall,  in  their  old 

places.  A  Provision  Dealer's 

Near  the  Forum,  the  shops  have  been  used  in  modern  times  as  depots 
for  pottery ;  they  contain  a  fine  collection  of  dolia,  cadi,  and  olla  (large 
jars  of  various  sizes),  and  of  amphora'  found  near  the  Sarno.  Nearly  all 
these  vessels  have  the  names  of  their  owners  marked  on  them  :   Marcus 


'^itrnttt. 


3SSSS&S 


230 


POMPEI  :   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


Lucius   Quariio,    and   the   name  of  the  maker;    Onesimus  fecit. —  Vitalis 
Gailici. 


Arophorse,  dolia,  Ac. 

In  the  little  museum  at  Pompei  there   are   some   fine  specimens  of 
amphorae,  on  which  are  the  following  inscriptions : 

IIPAPHRODITI    SVM   TANGIIRII    Mil    NOLI 
G  •  F  •  SCOMBR  •  SCAVKI    UMBRICI  ...  EX   OFFICINA 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


«3» 


Some  small  terra-cotta  vessels  have  the  names  of  their  contents  marked 
on  them : 

OLIVA   ALBA  —  LOMEN  —  LIQVAMEN   OPTIMVM 

On  the  amphorae  containing  wine,  the  date  of  the  wine  is  also  marked. 
These  inscriptions  are  painted  in  red,  while  the  names  of  the  owners  and 
makers  are  stamped  with  a  seal  on  the  moist  clay. 

TI  •  CLAVDIVS  C^SAR  VESVIN 

SINCANVTIVS  COS-  IMPVESP-VI   COS  • 


Earthenware  V^essels  and  Amphorae  (Museum  of  Pompei) 

The  shape  of  each  amphora  indicated  its  contents,  and  the  number  of 
congiiy  sextarii,  and  hemiiue  it  contained.  The  sextarius  was  the  tenth 
part  of  a  congius,  and  the  hcmina  or  cotyla  was  the  twelfth  part.  The 
chente  was  the  smallest  measure.  The  sextarius  was  used  both  as  a  dry  and 
liquid  measure ;  it  was  the  twelfth  part  of  a  modius,  the  largest  Roman 
measure  (about  two  gallons),  and  the  third  part  of  an  amphora  which  held 
wine,  oil,  grains,  &c.  The  congius  corresponded  to  a  weight  of  ten  pounds, 
as  is  proved  by  the  last  letters  traced  on  one  of  these  vessels :  P  .  X  ( for 
pundo  decern). 

A    curious   hydrometer,    in  the    form    of  a   saucepan,   was  found   in 
Pompei.     It  had  the  following  signs  engraved  on  the  handle: 
:  I .  • .  .  • .  I .  • .  .  • .  I .  • .  I  IV  :  ^  I  .  I  .  XI  .  I  .  • .  XI  .  j . 


\ 


\ 


I 


'■■ 


i 

^ 


(I 


!i 


iji 


POMPEl:    THE   CITV,    ITS    LIFE    AI^D    ART 


A  small  chain,  placed  on  the  handle,  had  a  weight  attached  to  it,  which 

marked  the  level  of  the  liquid  in  the  vessel. 

There  is  also  a  balance  with  one  scale  (s/a- 
tura)  ,  on  one  side  of  its  beam  are  the  figures 
from  I  to  XI II,  and  on  the  other  side  those  from 
X  to  XXXX.  One  of  the  steel-yards  shown  at 
the  Naples  Museum  had  been  stamped  according 
to  the  standard  measure  in  the  Capitol,  under 
Vespasian,  in  the  year  yy  a.d.,  as  the  inscription 
records:  IMP  •  VESP  •  AVG  •  IIX  T-  IMP  • 
AVG  •  F  •  VI  •  COS  •  EXACT  •  IN  •  CAPITO. 
A  standard  of  dry  measures  existed  at 
Pompei.   An  inscription 

Scales, /;*/-a  (Naples  Museum)  reCOrds    that   AulusCio- 

dius  Flaccus  and  Numerus  Arellianus,  duumvirs 
jure  dicundoy  were  by  decree  of  the  decurions 
charged  to  verify  the  public  standards  of  mea- 
sures.* Balances  with  two  scales  (/idra)  were 
also  found,  but  they  were  chiefly  used  to  weigh 
light  objects,  and  more  particularly  by  goldsmiths, 
as  we  see  in  a  painting  in  Pompei.  At  the 
Naples  Museum  there  are  some  very  small  scales 
like  our  modern  assay-balances. 

The  weights  in  use  were  made  of  black  stone, 
bronze,  lead,  or  terra-cotta.  The  weights  made  of 
black  stone  are  marked  with  one  X  or  two  X's,  or 
a  V,  and  weigh  from  9,^  to  2iJ  lbs.  Some  of  the 
bronze  weights  are  round,  shaped  like  a  mortar    ^.  ,     a   ,  .     /v   i    »^        » 

*^  '  r  *    •■•V1I.C4I      Steel-yard,  j/rt/«rrt  (Naples  Museum) 

or  a  kernel,  and  many  of  them  have  silver  figures  let  in  :  X   '  V  •  1 1 1  • 
III  •  S  •  .  :  .  • .  :  :  (S    stands    for    semix,   or    half,    the   dots    stand    for 

•  See  the  reproduction,  p.  138. 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


n^ 


fractions  of  the  pound).  Very  frequently  the  weights  are  made  in  the 
shape  of  objects  to  be  weighed,  and  represent  a  fish  or  a  goat,  and  so 
on.  They  have  the  following  figures  marked  on  them:  P  *  I,  P  •  II, 
P  •  III,  P  •  V,  P  •  X  •,  and  one  of  the  weights  is  inscribed :   Stalli  felic. 


Bronze  Weights  (Naples  Museum) 

Other  weights  are  made  in  the  shape  of  cheeses  and  knuckle- bones  ; 
a  pig  bears  the  initials  P.C  {centum  ponderis) ;  and  a  lead  weight  has  the 
device:  EME  •  HABEBIS  :  "  Buy  and  you  will  have."  The  terracotta 
weights  are  generally  in  the  form  of  a  truncated  pyramid,  and  have  seals 
stamped  on  them. 


2U 


m 
I'- 


)k\ 


1: 


/ 


TOOLS  AND  SURGICAL  INSTRUMENTS 

IN  the  Naples  Museum  the  commonest  articles  used  in  everyday  life — 
hooks,  an  anchor,  shuttles,  and  sailmakers'  needles,  the  same  in  sha|)e  as 
those  used  at  the  present  day — attract  the  attention  of  visitors.     Com- 
passes of  various  makes,  and  the  weights  of  plumb-lines,  all  prove  that  nearly 

everything  we  own  was   bequeathed   to  us  by 

the  ancients.     The  glass  cases  of  the  museums 

are  full  of  tools  discovered  at  Pompei  — hammers, 

mattocks,   spades  with  handles  like  those  still 

used  round  Naples,  rakes,  forks,  trowels,  anvils, 

soldering-irons,  planes,  saws,  bill-hooks,  &c. — in 

fact,  all  the  tools  of  modern  industry.     There 

Compasses  (Vapies  Mnseum)  was  also  a  Special  apparatus  for  setting  up  brick 

columns ;  and  to  cut  the  hoof  of  a  horse  a  special  tool  was  used,  the  handle 

of  which  was  decorated  with  a  representation  of  a  horse  being  shod. 

As  means  of  transport  and  locomotion  the  two- wheeled  chariot,  the  two- 
or  four-wheeled  cart,  and  the  litter  {Iccticd)  were  used  at  Pompei.  Mules 
and  horses  were,  however,  often  used  alone,  as  we  see  in  several  genre 
pictures  and  landscapes.  In  the  harbour  there  were  boats,  galleys,  triremes, 
and  sailing  vessels.* 

The  most  curious  and  interesting  of  all  these  relics,  however,  are  the 
instruments  used  by  the  surgeons  and  physicians.     Until  the  excavation  of 

*  See  pp.  78-79. 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


235 


Various  Iron  Implements— Plane,  Saw,  Fork,  IJills.  &c.  (Naples  Museum) 


\ 


:"i 


f, 


v^--  *  -  .  *~-*'  '■- 


X 


TOOLS  AND  SURGICAL  INSTRUMENTS 

IN  the  Naples  Museum  the  commonest  articles  used  in  everyday  life — 
hooks,  an  anchor,  shuttles,  and  sailmakers'  needles,  the  same  in  sha|x;  as 
those  used  at  the  present  day — attract  the  attention  of  visitors.     Com- 
passes of  various  makes,  and  the  weights  of  plumb-lines,  all  prove  that  nearly 

everything  we  own  was   bequeathed   to  us  by 

the  ancients.     The  glass  cases  of  the  museums 

are  full  of  tools  discovered  at  Pom pei— hammers, 

mattocks,    spades  with  handles  like  those  still 

used  round  Naj-les,  rakes,  forks,  trowels,  anvils, 

soldering-irons,  planes,  saws,  bill-hooks,  &c. — in 

fact,  all  the  tools  of  modern  industry.     There 

Compasses  (Naples  Mnseum)  was  also  a  special  apparatus  for  setting  up  brick 

columns ;  and  to  cut  the  hoof  of  a  horse  a  special  tool  was  used,  the  handle 

of  which  was  decorated  with  a  representation  of  a  horse  being  shod. 

As  means  of  transport  and  locomotion  the  two- wheeled  chariot,  the  two- 
or  four-wheeled  cart,  and  the  litter  {lectica)  were  used  at  Pompei.  Mules 
and  horses  were,  however,  often  used  alone,  as  we  see  in  several  genre 
pictures  and  landscapes.  In  the  harbour  there  were  boats,  galleys,  triremes, 
and  sailing  vessels.* 

The  most  curious  and  interesting  of  all  these  relics,  however,  are  the 
instruments  used  by  the  surgeons  and  physicians.     Until  the  excavation  of 

*  See  pp.  78-79. 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


235 


Various  Iron  Implements— Plane.  Saw,  Fork,  Hills,  &c.  (Naples  Museuni) 


|l 


?]' 


n 
J- 


1 


'1 


■0. 


i 


2S6 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


Pompei,  our   knowledge  ol   ancient   surgery  was  far  from   exact;   conse- 


Compasses 


SailiuakcTs'  Needles 
(Articles  in  the  Naples  Mnseum) 


Shuttles 


quently  the  discovery  in    1771  of  various  instruments  in  the  House  of  the 
Surgeon  made  a  great  sensation. 


Fish-hooks  and  Weights  of  Plumb-lines 


Hammer 


Iron  Ploughshare 


(Articles  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

Forty  instruments  used  in  medicine  were  found  there,  many  of  which 
are  described  by  Celsius. 

Among  this  collection  of  instruments  there  are  a  cupping-glass,  a  vesical 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


237 


probe  (which  Dr.  J.  L.  Le  Petit  re-invented  without  having  seen  the  antique 
original),  lancets,  forceps  or  sharp   tweezers  for  extracting  splinters,  an 


Anchor 


Oar 
(Naples  Museum) 


Piece  of  Bronze  Harness 


injection-probe,  cauteries,  an  auricular  clyster,  scalpels,  and  finally  uterine 
specula,  with  two,  three,  and  four  valves — a  proof  that  the  Roman  physicians 


Iron  Tools  (Naples  Museum) 

studied  the  diseases  of  women  and  probably  knew  how  to  treat  them. 
There  were  also  found  some  pills  in  a  box  with  partitions  and  drawers, 
which  held  various  pharmaceutical  powders. 

Physicians  were  divided  into  two  classes — those  who  were  consulted 


t 


,  I 


I 


I! 


»38 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


in  their  laboratories,  the  sellularii ,-  and  those  who  visited  their  patients, 


Surgical  Instruments  ( Naples  Museum) 

I.  Pincers.       2.  Vesical  Probe.      3.  Box  of  Pills.       4.   Injection  Probe.       5.  Pincers.       6.  Cautery. 
7.  Cupping  Apparatus.        8.  Cautery.       9.  Cautery.        10.  Clyster,  and  Clyster-pipe  with  a  Tap. 

II.  Forceps.         12.  Bivalvular  Speculum.         13.  Pincers  for  Splinters.         14.  Perforated  Pincers 

15.  Qnadrivalvular  Speculum.        16.  Trivalvular  Speculum.        17.  Cautery. 

periodentes.     Every  physician  was  bound  to  speak  Greek,  even  at  the  risk 
of  not  being  generally  understood,  for  a  doctor  without  Greek  was  but  looked 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


?39 


down  upon.  The  physicians  who  practised  under  the  early  Emperors  were 
not  highly  esteemed,  and  Pliny  has  little  good  to  say  of  them.  There  was 
such  a  large  number  of  physicians,  and  the  wealth  they  amassed 
was  such  a  proof  of  the  profits  of  their  profession,  that  their^ 
science  was  suspected,  and  their  atten- 


Brontc  Toy,  Common  Car  (Naples  Museum) 


Bronie  Toy,  Cart  (Naples  Museum) 


tions  to  their  patients   appeared   hardly  disinterested.     Pliny   even   con- 
sidered   that   Cato  , -/TTTTT^  --n 
was  justified  in  his     A^": 
distrust     of    the 
science  of  medi- 
cine, and  his  warn- 
ing   against    the 

Litter,  lectica  (Terra-cotta  in  the 
excesses      he     fore-  Naples  Museum) 

Cart,  sarracum(p.iiDting)  saw  would  arise  from  it,  for  the  doctors 

(he  continues)  aided  and  abetted  debauchery,  and  all  sorts  of  devices  for 
sensual  gratification  may  be  traced  to  them.      In  a  civilisation,  however. 


A  Boat  (PainUng  in  the  Naples  .Museum) 

where  the  pursuit  of  pleasure  was  the  "chief  good."  it  was  natural  that 
physicians  should  have  had  a  large  measure  of  popularity  and  success ; 
they  relieved  pin  and  lengthened  life, 


' 

(! 


f 


W 

I" 


XI 


THE   BAKEHOUSE,  THE   MILLS,  THE  OVENS  AND   LOAVES-SLAVES- 
FULLERS,  AND  VARIOUS  INDUSTRIES 

WE  may  pass  from  the  house  of  the  physician  to  that  of  a  neighbour, 
the  "  happy  baker,"  whose  shop  front  is  decorated  with  a  phallic 
emblem,*  and  the  device:  HIC  HABITAT  FELICITAS. 
His  bread  must  have  sold  well  in  the  city,  for  his  business  was  prosperous. 
The  entrance  lies  through  the  pisirinum,  where  the  mills  and  trough  still 
stand ;  the  oven  is  at  the  back  of  the  shop,  and  is  fitted  with  a  stone  pipe 
to  make  a  draught 

The  mills  all  stand  in  a  row  in  xh^  pistrinum.  They  consist  of  a  circular 
ashlar  block,  on  which  is  a  fixed  conical  mill-stone  of  tufa,  capped  by  the 
movable  mill-stone ;  the  trumpet-shaped  mouth  of  this  received  the  grain, 
which  fell  down  in  flour  on  the  round  base.  To  work  the  mill  a  bar  of 
wood  was  placed  in  the  square  holes  made  in  the  narrow  neck  of  the  mill, 
and  men,  women,  and  sometimes  asses  were  harnessed  to  the  bar,  and 
turned  the  upper  stone  by  walking  round  and  round  the  flagged  top  of  the 
base.  The  women  engaged  in  this  hard  labour  kept  company  with  the 
slaves  who  worked  for  their  master.  Their  life  was  a  hard  one— *'  to  work 
like  a  beast  of  burden,  and  get  nothing  but  blows  in  return,"  as  Trimalchio 
says.     Flight  was  of  little  avail,  for  they  wore  bronze  rings  on  their  arms,t 

*  We  shonld  also  see  in  this  sign  an  allusion  to  the  athlete's  loaves  mentioned  by  Martial,  the 
shape  of  which  is  still  usual  in  a  town  of  North  Italy. 

f  All  slaves,  according  to  Apuleius  (Metam.  Book  I.),  were  branded  with  a  letter  on  the  fore- 
)iead,  had  their  hair  shaven  on  one  side,  and  wore  a  ring  on  the  foot, 


THE  STREETS— Inscriptions— INDUSTRIES 


24* 


like  the  one  found  in  Pompei,  with  the  words  Servus  sum  tene  quia  fugio 
cut  on  it.  Death  alone  set  them  free.  Perhaps  there  is  an  allusion  to  the 
fate  of  one  of  them  in  the  following  graffito : 

Pyrrhus  C.  Heio  conlega  saluttm.     MoUsUfero  quod  audivi  tc  mortuum.     Itaque  vale. 
•'  Pyrrhus  to  his  fellow  C.  Heius,  greeting.     I  was  grieved  to  hear  that  you  were  dead.     Now 
may  it  be  well  with  you  i  " 


Bakehouse 

Plautus  and  Terence,  it  will  be  remembered,  turned  the  mill,  as 
captives,  and  it  was  the  usual  punishment  inflicted  on  slaves,  as  is  shown 
by  lines  in  the  Psettdolus : 

Sed  si  nan /axis,  numiquid  causa  est,  inlico  quia  te  in  pistrinum  condam  ? 
"  But  if  you  fail,  shall  I  not  be  justified  in  shutting  you  up  in  the  ptsirinum  ? 

In  the  ovens  of  the  bakehouse  whole  loaves  were  found  carbonised. 
Several  of  them  have  the  name  of  the  baker  marked  on  them,  and  are 
made  of  finer  dough  than  the  rest    They  are  probably  the  suiginei,  so  called 

2  H 


f' 


1 
I 


,i 


»43 


POMrEI  :    THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


from  the  wheat  (siligo) 
of  which  they  were 
made,  while  ordinary 
bread  was  f(?/K^/j.  Fancy 
bread  was  made  at  Pom- 
pei,  as  is  proved  by  the 
electioneering  notice 
posted  up  by  the  c/iba- 
y '  narii  and  libarii,  who 
at  certain  times  distri- 
Ovcn  of  a  Bakehouse  buted    bread   gratis,  as 

Julius  Polybius  promised.     As  to  Paquius  Proculus  (whose  portrait  is  given 

in     Part    VI.),    who    was 

both   cedile  and   baker,  on 

the  day  of  his  election  his 

ovens  could  not  have  been 

large  enough   to  thank  his 

electors.     This  form   of 

largesse  is  illustrated  by  a 

picture  representing  a  baker 

dressed  in  white,  sitting  at 

his     wooden      counter      and  Saleofa  slave  (Xap'cs  Museum)' 

offering  loaves  to  his  fellow-citizens.     The  bakers  in   Pompei  must  have 


Ix>aves  (Naples  Museum) 

*  The  sale  of  a  slave  is  represented  in  a  painting  in  the  Naples  Museum.  In  it  a  girl  is 
offered  for  sale  to  two  men  who  are  seated  in  the  Forum.  The  girl  carries  in  her  hand  a  card  on 
which  her  name,  age,  and  price  are  probably  written. 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


243 


grown  rich,  for  very  few  private  houses  had  ?l  pistrinum,  and  bread,  then  as 
now,  was  the  staple  food  of  all  classes.      Each  person  brought  his  own 


Pastry  (Naples  Museum) 

grain  to  the  bakehouse,  as  the  gleaners  do  in  France,  and  it  was  kept  in 
amphorae^  many  of  which 
were  full  of  flour  and  corn 
when  they  were  found.  The 
words  siligo  granii  (wheat- 
flour)  and  e  cicera  (pea-flour) 
are  written  on  them. 

Next  to  the  bakers,  the 
fullers  seem  to  have  been 
the  most  numerous  cleiss  in 
Pompei.  We  can  follow  the 
various  scenes  in  the  fullers' 
workshops  from  paintings 
reproduced  here.  The  stuffs 
to    be    cleansed    were    first 

soaked    in  vats   {cortinff)    full  IJaker  distributing  Bread  (Paiming  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

of  water  mixed  with 
alkaline  substances, 
and  then  trodden 
and  stamped  upon. 
Children  were  em- 
ployed in  this  part  of 
the  work,  and  danced 

Fullers  (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum)  thc  "  Fullers'  Dance  " 

(tripudiufn),  a  dance   in   triple  time.     In    the   House  of  the  Vet  fit   there 


I 


il 


I 


dl 


/ 


If  ^ 

pi 


■1  i 
Ml.  - 


«44 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


are  paintinfjs  which  represent  genii  at  work  treading  cloth  and  afterwards 
stretching  and  combing  it.     A  youth  is  also  represented  combing  cloth  in 

another  picture  ;  and  behind 
him  is  a  man  carrying  a  cage 
of  wickerwork,  surmounted 
by  an  owl,  the  bird  of 
Minerva,  the  patroness  of 
fullers.  This  cage  was  used 
to  stretch  the  woollen  togas 
upon  to  dry  them.  Sulphur* 
was  burnt  under  the  frame, 
the  fumes  serving  to  bleach 

Scene  in  a  Fullonica  (Painting  in  ihe  Naples  Museum)  the  ClOtll. 

A  fiiliouica  usually  consists  of  a  row  of  large  vats  lined  with  cement, 
placed  side  by  side  at  different  levels.  Bronze  taps  supplied  the  vats  with 
water,  which  ran  from  one  to  another  through  an  opening  in  the  lower  part 


Genii  fulling  Genii  combing  Cloth 

(Paintings  in  the  House  of  the  Vcttii) 

of  their  sides.  These  great  vats  were  used  to  rinse  the  wool,  while 
the  circular  basins  of  tufa  that  are  found  separately  must  have  been  used 
to  remove  the  dirt  from  woven  fabrics. 

•  Pliny  tells  us  (XXXV.  57)  that  the  stuffs  were  first  washed  with  Sardinian  earth  and  then 
fumigated  with  sulphur.  Lastly,  they  were  cleaned  with  Ciinolian  earth  (chalk  from  Cimola,  one  of 
the  Cyclades).     It  is  probably  this  chalk  that  we  find  in  the  doVxa  of  the  fullonica^ 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


245 


A  large  space  was  reserved  as  a  drying-ground  for  the  stuffs,  which 
were  combed  and  afterwards  stretched  in  the  sun.  Near  the /u//onua  were 
shops  containing  presses  and  shelves,  on  which  the  goods  were  laid  to  await 
the  purchaser. 

Some  of  these /u//omct^  were  important  places.     Statuettes  were  found 


The  Vats  of  a  Fullonica 


in  certain  of  them  :  a  Venus  with  a  necklace,  and  a  silver  Harpocrates.  On 
the  walls  there  were  paintings  of  Venus  fishing  with  a  rod  and  line,  and 
Polyphemus,  to  whom  a  Cupid  is  bringing  a  letter  from  Galatea. 

Not  very  long  ago  there  was  a  curious  series  of  sketches  still  to  be 
seen  under  the  portico  of  the /u//onica  reproduced  above,  but  the  drawings, 
which  were  somewhat  obscene,  are  now  obliterated.  They  represented 
dances  and  banquets,  probably  those  of  the  Feast  of  Minerva  {guin^tiatrus), 
which  was  celebrated  on  March  19. 


I'l 


I 


J- 


346 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


Scenes  from  the  various  trades  and  professions  are  represented  in  a 
rude  set  of  ancient  sketches  reproduced  below.  One  of  these  paintings 
represents  a  clothier  praising  his  wares  to  his  customers  and  pointing  out 

the  delicacy  of  the  fab- 


j,(«'«*'l^''"'^jf\% 


A  Clothier  (Naples  Museum) 


rics  ;  two  women  enter- 
ing the  shop  ask  for  a 
robe  like  those  they  are 
wearing.  They  are 
received  by  a  young 
man,  who  hastens  to 
serve  them. 

Next,  a  shoemaker 

takes  the  measure  of  a  shoe  with  a  special  instrument ;  his  customers  sit 

and  wait.      The  wall  at  the  back  of  the  shop  is  hung  with  lasts. 

Another  picture  represents  genii  at  work  at  a  forge.     One  of  them  is 

making  a  bronze  pot ;  another  blows  the  furnace-fire  with  a  pipe,  and  holds 

a   piece   of  metal    in   the   flame 


with  a  pair  of  pincers ;  a  third 
genius  is  seated,  carefully  ham- 
mering some  small  object  on  an 
anvil.  In  front  of  him  is  a  chest 
with  drawers,  above  which  hangs 
a  pair  of  scales,  while  a  robed 
genius,  representing  Authority, 
presides  over  the  stamping  of 
objects   weighed    in    the   scales. 

Genii    are  represented    forging    in  a  shoemaker  (Palming  in  the  Naples  Museum)     \Z/ 

another  painting,  and  two  are  shown  at  work  at  the  oil-press,  hammering 
in  wedges  to  crush  the  olives  and  extract  the  oil,  which  drips  into  a  basin. 

Passing  through  the  streets,  we  come  to  a  butcher's  stall,  with  its 
marble  counter,  on  which  the  meat  was  cut  up.     Next  comes  a  wash-house 


' 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


247 


(near  the  lupanar).  Some  writers  suppose  this  to  have  been  a  soap  factory. 
It  was  here  that  the  famous  Bacchus  of  the  Naples  Museum  (known  as  the 
Narcissus)  was  found.  * 

Urge  leaden  capsules  rather  more  than  a  yard  in  diameter  are  placed 


tienU  coining  and  forging  (Painting  in  the  House  of  the  V'ettii) 

above  the  furnaces,  and  large  stone  basins  with  leaden  pipes  are  ranged 
along  the  wall.  Under  the  staircase  leading  to  the  upper  storey  were 
found  washing-bills  written  with  a  style,  which  were  deciphered  by  Fiorelli. 
The  dirty  water  from  the  wash-house  fell  into  the  street  through  a  wide 


'i'he  Oil-press 


(Paintings  in  the  House  of  the  Vettii) 


The  Forge 


gargoyle.  Weights,  lamps,  candelabra,  and  a  pair  of  scales  were  found  in 
the  place,  and  lanterns  were  also  discovered  close  by.  The  Pompeian 
lanterns  were  surrounded  with  sheets  of  talc. 

Another  shop  with  large  basins  is  the  skinner's  shop  in  the  Street  of 
the  Diadumeni.  where  the  bench  of  travertine,  on  which  the  skins  were 
treated,  is  still  in  excellent  preservation.    Various  tools  used  by  tanners 

*  See  Part  VI. 


^\ 


I 


III 


248 


POMPEI  :   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


THE   STREETS— INSCRIPTIONS— INDUSTRIES 


249 


(corriarii)  were  found  here,  and  the  plate  of  a  press.     On  the  wall  is  written 

the  name  of  the  owner  of  the  shop,  M.  Nonius  Campanus,  an  old  soldier. 

Above  this  inscription  is  the  (oWowing  graffito :  "  Scaura  the  Egyptian  has 

sewed    the     hides 
^'  of  oxen  here." 

In  addition  to 
these  established 
manufacturers  and 
dealers,  there  were, 
as  in  Naples  to- 
day, crowds  of 
itinerant  vendors, 
who  appeared  on 
A  Butcher's  Stall  market-day s.  Here 

we  see  a  passer-by  bargaining  with  a  coppersmith,  who  strikes  the.  metal 

of  a  copper  pot  with  a  stick  to  prove  its  quality.     In  the  background  a 

carpenter  is  carving 

a    piece   of   wood 

with  a  chisel.    This 

painting  is  a  good 

illustration  of  d iffer- 

ences    in   costume. 

The  purchaser 

wears    the     Atma- 

iion,  which  falls  in 

graceful  folds  about 

him;     his     gestures  soap  Factory  or  Wash-house 

are  free  and  dignified ;  he  will  not  even  touch  the  articles  for  which  he  is 
negotiating,  so  is  followed  by  a  young  slave  with  a  basket. 

The  seller  of  bric-a-brac,  sitting  before  his  little  stall  of  ironware,  has 
a  resigned  and  weary  look.     His  downcast  air   seems  to  say  that  trade  is 


bad,  and   he   pays   no   heed   to  a  man  who   is   pJiaking   his   fist   at   him. 
The  basket  on  the  arm  of  one  of  the  figures  in  the  painting  is  of  the  same 


J»A\-« 


Tannery 


shape  as  those  still  used  in  the  country  round  Pompei.     In  the  background 

the  forenses  are  strolling  to  and  fro  under  the  porticoes  of  the   Forum. 

Another  picture  of  the 

Forum     represents     a  |    I 

strolling  vendor  of  hot 

drinks,    who   hands    a 

measure  of  the  boiling 

liquid,  with  a  long  pair 

of  pincers,  to  a  traveller 

leaning  on  a  stick.    The 

costume  of  the  latter  is  coppersmith 

curious.     For  a  long  journey  on  foot  it  was  probably  the  custom  to  raise 

the  cloak  above  the  hips  and  wrap  it  round  the  arm ;  this  freed  the  limbs 

and  preserved  the  cloak  from  dust  and  wet 

21 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND   ART 


Setler  of  Ironware  (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum)     Sellers  of  Hot  Drinks  and  Fruits  (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

In  the  middle-distance  of  the  same  picture  there  is  a  woman  selling 
fruit    and    vegetables.     ^,,a^^^;f^V^'\_-.  Among  her  stock  are 

figs,  and  flowers  stuck   tvJy  ^"  ^  board,  as  vendors 

in  Naples  still  arrange         \f  ,i\^^^  orange-flowers. 

Our  last  painting         li'^W^  \  shows  a  child  train- 

ing a  monkey.  Under  ^^  1^^  '^^^^  '^^  porticoes  on  mar- 
ket-days the  people  of  LA\L  ^^jJ\  ^^"^P^'  ^^^^  amused 
by  all  the  comic  ex-  \f  ^  ^T  hibitions  of  modern 
times,  and  the  dressed-  ^^^  ^""^  -^^k^  up  monkey  is  certainly 
one  of  the  most  an-  ^^'"Xli^!.*,^-)^ '"'*  cient  of  popular  diver- 
sions.    These  memorials  are  of  great  interest  to  us,  as  pictures  of  the  life 

of  the  ancients,  practical 

and  conservative  folks. 

There  is  a  gentle  irony 

in  the  constant  reflection 

that  all  our  customs  are 
but  survivals  from  the  older  civilisations  more  or  less  denaturalised. 
But  what  more  inevitable  than  that  man  in  all  ages  should  sometimes 
solve  the  same  problem  by  the  same  means  .^ 


Archaic  Coins  of  Naples 
(Collection  of  Coins  in  Paris) 


Coins  of  Naples 
(Collection  of  Coins  in  Paris) 


I 


PART    V 


THE    GRi^CO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


/ 


Tuscan  Atrium  (House  of  Siricus) 


THE  OUTSIDE  OF  THE   HOUSES-THE  OSTIUM— THE   DOORS— 

THE   PROTHYRUM 

THE  interior  of  the  Graeco-Roman  house  still  remains  to  be  examined. 
We  have  crossed  the  thresholds  of  a  few  houses  to  see  the  Shrines 
of  the  Lares,  and  from  the  street  we  have  caught  glimpses  through 
doorways  of  a  few  red-based  columns,  but  the  high,  grated  windows  keep 
their  secret  well.  The  few  windows  opening  on  the  street  only  serve  to  let 
in  a  little  light  and  air,  and  are  set  high  in  the  wall  for  security  from  thieves. 
On  the  ground-floor  they  are  rarely  found,  except  in  kitchens  and  a  few 
bedrooms.  The  windows  in  the  upper  storeys  were  larger,  and  it  was  possible 
to  lean  out  of  them,  to  judge  by  the  mipniana  or  balconies  overhanging  the 
street.  But  by  the  general  arrangement  of  their  houses  the  Pompeians 
were  cut  off  from  the  outside  world,  and  their  life  was  passed  in  privacy, 
undisturbed  by  the  curiosity  of  their  neighbours, 


»54 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


I 


M 


Before  entering  the  various  houses, 

let   us   briefly   examine    the    general 

arrangement  of  the  principal  parts  of 

a  house,  as  exemplified  in  the  plan  of 

the  House  of  Pansa,  the  most  perfect 

example   of  a  wealthy 

Graeco- Roman     house. 

The    shaded     portions 

of  the  plan  do  not  corn- 
Entrance  of  the  C'asa 

municate  with  the  house        <*«>  Toreiio 
itself,  and  were  probably  let  to  small 
tradesmen. 

At  the  entrance  to  the  house 
there  is  always  a  step  before  the 
double  doors  {janua),  near  which  a 
laurel-branch  and  a  lamp  were  usually 
placed,  in 
honour  of  the 
dit  custodes. 
fhe  House  of  Pansa  Unlike  Greek 

doors  (which  opened  outwardly,  a  custom  that  was 

made   a   pretext   for   taxation),    the    Roman    doors 

generally  opened  inwards,  and  fell  back  against  the 

walls  of  the  prothyrum.      In  some  special  cases  only 

they  opened  outwards  ;  this  was  a  mark  of  distinction, 

an  honour  reserved  for  victorious  generals  to  whom  a 

site  for  their  houses  had  been  granted  by  decree.* 
Sometimes  there  were  two  doors  at  the  entrance, 

one    massive,  the  second  lighter,  at   a   distance  of 

♦  The  threshold  of  a  house  was  called  the  \imcn  ;  the  door-posts  the  a»i/<r  and  pedes  ;  the  lintel 
jugumentum  and  supercilium  ;  the  cornice  the  corona ;  the  folding-doors  fores,  janua  ;  the  whole  was 
called  the  ostium  [i.e.  opening). —  Saglio,  V)ici.  Janua. 


Reconstructed  Door,  Janua 
(Museum  of  Pompei) 


THE   GR.^^:CO-KOMAN    HOUSE  255 

about  a  yard  from  one  another.  In  some 
cases,  as  in  the  House  of  Popidius  Priscus, 
the  second  door  was  of  open  ironwork.  One 
house,  the  Casa  del  Torello,  has  some 
peculiar  features  which  are  illustrated  on  the 
plan.  Besides  the  principal  door,  there  was  a 
side  entrance  on  one  side  of  the  prothyrum, 
where  the  osiiarius  or  janitor — the  door- 
keeper— sat.* 

In  addition  to  the  entrance-door  or 
janua  there  was  another  door,  sometimes 
also  called  the  ostium,  at  the  end  of  the 
prothyrum,  which  was  the  vestibule  leading 
into  the  atrium.  Tha  janua  were  occasionally  I 
of  bronze,  but  as  a  rule  they  were  of  solid    r^  .  ,  .r^     ,y,  r  d       n 

,  v-jr     »»v-iv-    wi    jKjiivA     Cast  of  an  ancient  Door  (Museum  of  Pompei) 

wood  studded  with  large-headed  nails,  or  divided  into  panels  with  mouldings. 


Locks  and  Keys  (Naples  Museum) 

There  was  frequently  an  impost  over  the  door  or  a  grating  in  the  upper 
part  of  it. 

•  Petronius  writes  of  an  osiiarius,  dressed  in  green  with  a  cherry-coloured  belt,  shelling  peas 
in  a  silver  basin.  Over  the  threshold  of  the  door  was  hung  a  gold  cage  containing  a  magpie  with 
variegated  plumage,  which  called  to  those  who  entered  the  house.  Near  the  doorkeeper  there 
was  painted,  on  the  wall,  a  large  dog  chained  up,  and  beneath  it  were  written  the  words :  Cave, 
Cave  Canein  ! 


i 

1 


256 


POMPEI  :   THE  CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


THE   GR.>KCO-ROMAN   HOUSE 


257 


:\ 


fl^ 


The  methods  of  fasteninj^  seem  to  have  been  very  complete.     The 
locks  exhibited  in  the  Museum  are  most  ingenious  in  construction  ;    the 


Keys  (Naples  Museum) 

cast  of  an  ancient  door  with  its  hooks,  its  latch,  and  the  large  lock,  which 
had  given  way  under  the  weight  of  the  fallen  rubbish,  is  also  shown. 

The  prothyrum  was  almost 
always  paved  with  mosaics  in 
black,  white,  and  brown,  and  was 
the  outward  and  visible  sign  of 
the  wealth  of  the  master  of  the 
house.  In  one  house  {Casa  delf 
Ancora)  the  mosaic  represents 
an  anchor;  in  the  Casa  deW 
Orso,  a  wounded  bear  with  the 
inscription  HAVE  (hail!);  and 
in  the  Casa  del  Pocta  tragico,  a 
dog  with  the  device,  CAVE 
CANEM.  In  the  House  of 
Siricus,  the  words  SALVE 
y('jj/|'i  LVCRV(M)  (hail  to  gain!)  are 
inscribed  on  the  floor  in  small 
white  cubes. 

Prothyrum  of  the  House  of  Blandus  A     hoUSe     in     the     StrCCt     of 

Stabia-,  opposite  that  of  the  banker  Jucundus,  has  a  mosaic  at  the  entrance 


representing   several  phalli  combined,  together  with  the  word  SALVE. 
On   the  pavements  of  other   houses  a  wolf  and  a  wild    boar   are  repre- 


Mosaic  in  the  Prothyrum  of  the  Casa  dell'  Orso 


sented,  and  the  attributes  of  Neptune  are  seen  at  the  entrance  of  the 
prothyrum  of  the  House  of  Blandus,  in  which  some  fine  mosaics  were 
discovered. 


2K 


II 


THE  ATRIUM— THE  COMPLUVIUM-THE   IMPLUVIUM— THE  CARTIBULUM- 
THE   HEARTH— THE  ATRIUM   TESTUDINATUM— THE  TUSCAN   ATRIUM— 
THE  TETRASTYLE   ATRIUM— THE   CORINTHIAN    ATRIUM-THE 
CAV.€DIUM— THE   LARARIUM 

THROUGH  the  prothyrum,  which  was  nearly  always  decorated  with 
paintings  or  striated  stucco-work,  we  pass  to  the  atrium  or  first 
court,  in  which  lies  the  rectangular  basin  of  the  impluvium.  The 
water  from  the  roof  fell  through  the  mouths  of  the  terra-cotta  gargoyles 
round  the  compluviiim  into  the  impluvium,  and  thence  drained  away  into 
cisterns  under  the  pavement  of  the  atrium.  A  puteal  of  marble  or  earthen- 
ware decorated  the  opening  of  these  cisterns,  and  in  some  cases  the  edge 
has  been  worn  away  by  the  cord  or  chain  to  which  the  vessel  for  drawing 
water  was  attached.  There  are  also  some  very  ancient  wells  at  Pompei, 
sunk  to  a  depth  of  thirty-three  yards,  which  still  supply  water.* 

In  many  houses  the  atrium  is  picturesque  even  now,  with  its  marble 
basins  and  its  tables  on  the  edge  of  the  impluvium.  Statuettes  which 
served  as  fountains  stand  on  pedestals  which  were  originally  the  '*  hearths  " 
or  altars  where  sacrifices  were  offered  to  the  Lares  domestici.  In  front  of 
these  statuettes,  which  are  often  Cupids,  a  light  and  graceful  basin  of  pure 
marble  received  the  jet  of  water,  which  filled  the  basin  to  overflowing  and 
fell   with   a   musical   tinkle   into   the   impluvium.      The   marble  table,   or 

■■■  The  list  of  the  wells  and  their  depths  are  to  be  found  in  Facii  about  Pompei,  by  Fitzgerald 
Marriott. 


4 


ft 


I 


;> 


fh 


t. 


PI..    Mil 


ixtri 


'■A      \ 


POMPEIAN     I'ORTHAITS 

KECION    VI   —  IX81I.A    VII  No    n  RKGION     I    -   INSL.A    HI  Xo    30  RKGION    I   —   ,xs,  I.A    II   -    Xo    6 

\Casa    di    .tpollo) 


II 


r  ! 


T 


.'....lLt*r     li 


-f^rrtrn  V 


'Trn--; 


CW.l 


■r  ,'tf 


bv  irjf 


»f  writ 


Of   writer.   ■'.■ 


,A^......■ 


^t 


* 


THE     DEATH    OF    DIRGE 

(painting      IX     THK      II  O  L' S  K     OF      THK     VETTIl) 


\ 


'fb 


THE   GR^XO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


259 


cartibulum,  where  in  ancient  times  the  food  was  placed,  when  meals  were 
taken  in  the  atrium  and  the  altar  was  the  hearth  where  the  food  was 
cooked,  became  in  later  times  a  decorative  feature,  a  stand  for  works  of  art, 
or  a  table  at  which  women  made  their  toilette. 

Four  varieties  of  atria  are  found  in  Pompei :  the  atrium  testudinatum, 
the  Ttiscan  atrium,  the  tetrastyle  atrium,  and  the  Coritithian  atrium. 


N 


Tuscan  Atrium  and  Impluviuni  (House  of  Cornelius  Rufus) 

The  first  type  is  completely  roofed  in,  and  of  course  has  no  impluvium. 
According  to  Fiorelli,*  the  oldest  houses  in  Pompei  had  these  atria  before 
the  earthquake  of  the  year  63  (there  was  one  in  the  Casa  del  Ccntenario), 
and  their  sloping  roofs  were  four-sided,  like  those  of  modern  houses.  In 
simpler  and  more  primitive  times  the  atrium  was  the  whole  dwelling.  The 
inhabitants  ate  and  slept  there,  and  the  marriage-bed  stood  in  the  place  of 
the  tablinum.\  Hence,  it  has  been  conjectured  that  the  original  type  oi  atrium 

*  Gli  Scsvi  di  Pompti  dal  1861-72.  f  Mouceaux  (Saglio's  Diet.  Duinus). 


26o 


POMPEI  :   THE   CITY,   ITS'  LIFE   AND   ART 


THE   GILECO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


261 


Inner  projecting  Galleries  or  Corbels  (Painting  in  an  CEcos, 
Region  IX.,  Insula  VII.) 


was  completely  roofed  in  (cavum 
(pdium  testudinatum),  i.e.  with  a 
roof  shaped  like  a  tortoise-shell,  and 
had  no  impluvium. 

In  later  times  the  atrium  was 
uncovered,  and  light  was  let  in  ;  the 
triclinium  took  the  place  of  the 
marriage-bed.  This  change  was 
effected  by  placing  a  table  near  the 
couch,  and  the  custom  of  eating 
meals  reclining  is  a  survival  of  this 
arranjrement. 

The  chief  rooms  of  the  house 
were  now  grouped  round  the  atrium, 

which  had  become  the  inner  court ;  but  with  the  increase  of  luxury,  due  to 

the  advent  of  the  Greek  colonists,  the  atrium  in  its  later  form  no  longer 

satisfied    the   needs   of 

the  new  civilisation.    It 

was  retained,  but  it  was 

no    longer   the   private 

room  ;  it  was  merely  the 

antechamber    to   the 

house  itself     Its  place 

was  taken  by  the  Greek 

pcristylium,   which   had 

all  the  advantages  of  the 

atrium   without    its  in- 
conveniences. 

The  most  common 


type  of  atrium  at  Pom- 


Tetrastyle  Atrium  jCasa  delle  Nozae  d'Argento) 


pel 


is  the  Tuscan  atrium.     It  has  no  columns,  and  the  roof  which  sheltered 


1^ 


it  from  sun  and  rain  was  sup- 
ported by  four  beams  crossing 
each  other  at  right  angles, 
with  their  ends  fixed  in  the 
walls.  This  is  probably  the 
atrium  described  by  Pliny  as 
"  built  in  the  ancient  style,"  ex 
more  ueterum.  It  is  certainly 
of  Etruscan  origin,  as  its  name 
implies,  for  there  must  always 
have  been  Etruscans  in  the 
city ;  the  names  Tuscan  and 
Oscan  are  synonymous. 

Above  the  Tuscan  atrium, 
when  the  houses  had  an  upper 
storey,  there  was  a  balcony 
with  a  balustrade  running 


/.'  ^ 


Tetrastyle  Atrium  with  the  wooden  portions  reconstructed 


Tetrastyle  Atrium  and  Ccmpluvium 

round  the  compluvium  and  pro- 
jecting over  the  area  of  the  atrium. 
We  know  of  the  existence  of  these 
galleries  from  certain  paintings  in 
Pompei.  By  means  of  this  bal- 
cony part  of  the  roof  was  turned 
to  account,  and  an  external  com- 
munication was  established  between 
the  different  rooms  on  the  upper 
storey.  In  most  cases  the  roof  pro- 
jected a  considerable  distance,  and 
the  open  area  was  reduced  to  the 


262 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


size  of  the  impluvium.  As  this  roofing  had  sometimes  too  great  a 
span,  a  wooden  pillar  was  placed  at  each  corner  of  the  impluvium  to 
support  it.  Very  few  traces  remain  of  these  wooden  supports,  for  all 
woodwork  has  been  destroyed  either  by  the  disaster  or  by  time.     There 

are,  however,  examples  of  the  old 
Tuscan  atria  strengthened  in  the  Greek 
style  by  the  addition  of  four  columns 
of  brick  or  tufa.  Thus  the  tetrastyle 
atrium  in  its  primitive  form  with  rustic 
wooden  pillars  took  the  place  of  the 
Tuscan  atrium. 

The  tetrastyle  atrium  is,  never- 
theless, somewhat  unusual  in  Pompei, 
although  certain  large  houses  have  two 
atria,  one  of  them  Tuscan  and  the 
other  an  «/r/'//;;/ with  four  columns  [Casa 
del  Fauno,  del  Laberinto  and  del  Cen- 
tenario)*  The  Casa  delle  Nozze 
d'ArgentOy  which  is  a  rich  and  important 
house,  has  a  tetrastyle  atrium  with  tall 
columns  and  capitals  of  the  Corinthian 
order.  In  Region  I.,  In- 
sula II.,  there  are  also  four 
columns  of  the  same  type, 
with  Ionic  capitals  support- 
ing the  restored  iron  grat- 
ing of  the  compluvium.  A  similar  atrium  is  found  in  a  small  house  on 
the  left-hand  side  of  the  Street  of  Mercury.  The  peculiar  feature  of  this 
atrium  is  the  addition  of  two  columns  in  front,  which  formed  part  of  a 

•  The  House  of  the  Vettii  has  two  air'xa,  a  Tuscan  one  and  a  ver>'  small  atrium  with  its 
impluvium  near  the  wall ;  and  the  ruof  has  only  three  sides. 


Stove,  f\mnd  in  an  Atrium,  origin.illy  from  a  Caldarium 
(Naples  Museum) 


THE   GR^.CO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


263 


small  portico.     There  are  also  several  houses  which  have  fine  views  over 
the  valley  of  the  Sarnus,  with  similar  atria. 

The  tetrastyle  atrium  was  also  common  in  small  houses,  where  supports 
were  required  for  the  rooms  over  the  atrium^  and  where  the  small  area  of 
the  ground  on  which  the  house  was  built  did  not  allow  of  any  extension. 
A  little  house  built  on  this  principle  was  discovered  in  the  excavations  of 
1898  (Region  VI.,  Insula  XV.)  and  restored.     The  beams  and  the  joists  of 


Cavoedium  of  the  Casa  dei  Capitelli  Colorali  (or  the  Casa  di  Arriana) 

the  first  storey  have  been  replaced,  and  the  wooden  staircase  with  its  hand- 
rail and  stone  base  has  been  reconstructed.  The  stair  leads  to  the  upper 
storey,  but  the  upper  rooms  are  of  no  especial  interest.  They  are  lighted 
by  a  very  narrow  compluvium,  which  also  lights  the  atrium  below.  This 
must  have  been  very  dark,  especially  when  the  rooms  on  the  ground-floor 
were  roofed  and  surmounted  by  an  upper  storey  ;  but  in  the  heat  of  summer 
this  twilit  space  must  have  been  cool  and  pleasant. 

The  atrium  which  shows  Greek  influences  most  strongly  is  the  Corinthian 
atrium,  with  numerous  columns  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  peristyle.  The  term 


264 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


Corinthian  does  not  refer  to  the  architectural  order  of  the  columns  and 
capitals,  for  these  may  be  Tuscan  or  Ionic ;  indeed,  a  Corinthian  atrium 
with  the  so-called  Corinthian  capitals  has  not  hitherto  been  discovered  in 
Pompei.  This  style  of  atrium  may  give  rise  to  some  confusion^of  classifi- 
cation, and  in  houses  with  several  caverdia*  one  is  sometimes  in  doubt 
whether  a  peristylium  is  not  a  Corinthian  atrium,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Casa  dei  Capitelli  Colorati. 

'Wi^  Casadei  Capitelli  Colorati  (Casa  di  Arriana)  has  three  cavcedia 


Corinthian  Atrium  (House  of  Epidius  Rufus) 

opening  one  into  another.  The  house  is  situated  on  two  streets,  but  a 
posticum,  or  private  door,  opens  into  a  third  street.  The  main  entrance 
lies  in  the  Strada  degli  Augustali,  where  the  prothyrum  leads  into  a  simple 
Tuscan  atrium,  which  opens  into  the  tablinum.  Next  comes  a  cavadium^ 
bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  a  Corinthian  atrium  the  impluvium  of 
which  has  been  transformed  into  a  fountain.  It  is  surrounded  by  Ionic 
columns  with  yellow  bases  and   tufa  capitals  covered  with  red  and  blue 

*  By  cavadium  is  understood  any  part  of  the  house  open  to  the  sky,  and  thus  forming  a  cavum 
0dium  (a  hollow  in  the  house),  as  do  the  atrium  and  petistylium. 


THE   GR/ECO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


265 


Stucco.     The  open  area  is  restricted  to  the  imp/uvimn,  as  in  Corinthian 
atria. 

Whether  this  cavivdium  should  be  called  a  peristylium  or  not  is  a  moot 
point.  The  name  was  given  to  it  from  its  position  in  the  house  rather 
than  from  its  general  arrangement.  The  Corinthian  atrium  appears,  indeed, 
to  have  been  but  a  smaller  variety  of  the  Greek  peristylium,  an  example  of 


Strong-Box  of  Bronze,  Iron  and  Wood  (Naples  Museum) 

which  is  found  in  the  same  house,  leading  from  the  cavcedium  and  opening 
by  a  pseudothyrum  into  the  Strada  di  Nola. 

Among  the  other  Corinthian  atria  in  Pompei  we  should  notice  the 
atrium  in  the  House  of  Epidius  Rufus,  of  the  Tuscan  order,  with  baseless 
fluted  columns  of  tufa.  On  the  right-hand  side  there  is  a  small 
exedra,  with  a  chapel  dedicated  to  the  Lares  and  the  genius  of  the  master 
of  the  house.  The  Casa  di  Cast  ore  e  Polluce  and  the  Villa  of  Diomedes 
have  also  Corinthian  atria,  but  only  the  first  courses  of  the  stucco  columns 
with  red  bases  remain. 

Roman  authors  do  not  make  any  very  absolute  distinction   in  their 

2  L 


a66 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


writings  between  the  Corinthian  atrium,  the  peristylium,  and  the    Tuscan 
^fi^        atrium.      To   them  the  atrium   is   a   cavcedium^ 
-  '**'^      the  centre   of  a   common    family  life,  the   place 
where  the  archives  are  kept,  where  the  strong- 
box  stands,    and    where    busts    of    owners    and 
ancestors  are  placed  on  marble  terms,  as  in  the 
houses  of  Caicilius  Jucundus  and  Cornelius  Rufus. 
The  Lararium*  according  to  ancient  authorities, 
was  situated  in  the  atrium ;  at  Pompei,  however, 
many  of  them  are  found  in  the  peristylium,\  a 
proof  that  at   a   certain    period  the  atrium  was 
abandoned   for    the  peristyiium,  and    that   their 
names  were  interchangeable,  as  both  rooms  were 
used  for  the  same  purposes. 
iJ  Within    the   atrium   the   woman   was    con- 

J  sidered  the  equal  of  the  man,  and  from  the 
(NapteM,^.)  moment  when  the  newly- wedded  wife  set  foot  (NapTiMuiL) 
in  her  husband's  atrium  she  ^tjfsi^  shared  all  his  rights.  This  was 
expressed  in  an  old  formula :  |^^^^  when  the  wife  first  crossed  the 
threshold   of   her    new   home     'Cal^^^    she    turned    to    her    husband 

Thimble 

with    the    ceremonial    words  :  (Naples  Museum)   ••  (J^i  tu  Gaius,  ibi  ego  Gaia  " 
("Where  you  are  master,  I  am  mistress"). 

*  See  Part  II.  x.  for  the  Lararia. 

t  These  small  niches  to  hold  statuettes  of  the  gods  are  to  be  found  in  almost  every  place,  frcm 
the  l>rothyrum  to  the  Kitch^q, 


IJI 


THE  BEDROOMS— THE  BEDS— THE  AL>E— THE  TABLINUM— THE  ANDRON 


o 


N   either  side  of  the  atrium  there  were  bedrooms,  so  small  that  they 
were  only  as  wide  as  the  bed,  which  was  enclosed  in  a  little  alcove, 
the  zoteca. 
The  beds  were  usually  made  of  wood,  with  bronze  feet,  and  several 
specimens   are    richly  inlaid 
with    silver.     They    were 
covered  with  a  mattress,   a 
pillow,    and    cushions,    and 
both   beds  and  divans  were 
covered  with  a  drapery  like 
certain  striped  Indian  stuffs, 
as    may    be    seen    in    our 
sketches   from    paintings   at 
Pompei.  Sometimes  the  bed 
stood  on  a  platform    raised 
above  the  marble  lloor.  as  in 
the  House  of  Spurius  Mesor 
These    cubicula    were    only 
used   at    night ;    they    were 

lighted    by    very  small    open-  a  Room  in  the  House  of  Holconius 

ings,  and  by  the  door  leading  into  the  atriiwi.    Several  of  these  rooms  had 
glazed  bull's  eye  windows.     Women  probably  performed  their  toilettes  in 


268 


POMPEI.    THE  CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 


THE   GR^.CO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


269 


these  cells,  especially  in  the  larger  ones,  which  contained  marble  slabs 
supported  on  terms  and  fixed  to  the  wall.  But  there  were  also  special 
dressing-rooms,  and  in  a  house  discovered  in  1898,  in  Region  VI.,  Insula 
XV.,  there  is  a  small  room  painted  with  Cupids  looking  into  mirrors  and 


/- 


'-^^r 


I 


1^  > 


Beds  (Fragments  of  Paintings  in  a  House  in  Region  IX.,  Insula  V.) 

curling  their  locks,  surrounded  by  the  various  articles  of  the  toilette,  while 
a  nude  Venus  is  twisting  up  her  hair  as  though  she  had  just  emerged 
from  the  waves. 


Bronze  Bed  inlaid  with  Silver  (some  Parts  re- 
constructed in  Wood)  (Naples  Musfunt) 

On  either  side  of  the  atrium,  beyond  the  bedrooms,  there  are  the  al(F 
—  two  rooms  without  doors,  which  were  the  retired  portions  of  the  atrium, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  annexes  of  the  tab li num.  They  were  shut  off  by 
curtains  and  furnished  with  seats  and  lamps.  But  these  ala  are  not  found 
in  all  the  houses,  and  some  houses  have  only  one,  like  the  Casa  delta 
Caccia,  del  Poet  a,  and  del  Laberinto. 


\ 


As  the  houses  gradually  increased  in  size,  the  master  had  a  private 
room  where  he  received  his  clients  and  tran- 
sacted business  (for  the  atrium  had  now  become 

a  place  ac- 
cessible to 
all).  This 
was  the  tab- 
linum,  in  the 

Bronze  Seat  (Naples  Museum)  Centre  of   the 

house,  lying  between  the  atrium  and  the  pert- 
sty  Hum.  It  was  often  very  spacious,  full  of 
fountains,  flowers,  and  shrubs.  In  most  cases  it 
had  only  the  two  lateral  walls,  but  it  could  be  closed  at  the  ends  by  movable 

screens,    or   by   curtains   with    rings 

running  on  a  rod. 

The   back   of   the   room    which 

opened   on   to  the  peristylium  must 

have  been  often  screened  thus,  for  the 


Woollen  Seat  reconstructed  (Naples 
Museum) 


T 


Bronie  Candelabra  aud  Folding  Table  (Naples  Museum) 

draughts  in  a  Pompeian  tablinum  at  the  present  day  make  it  an  unpleasant 
place  of  sojourn  in  cold  or  rainy  weather. 


■Mi 


270 


POMPEl:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


THE   GR.t:CO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


a7« 


Some  tablina  are  enclosed  on  all  sides,  and  the  end  wall  is  sometimes 
pierced  with  a  wide  bay,  which  had  shutters.  The  tablinum  of  the  Casa 
del  Fauno  dues  not  open  into  the  pcristylium,  but  has  a  wall  breast-high 
at  the  farther  end.  In  some  cases  the  tablinum  was  like  an  exedia,  and 
could  only  be  entered  by  the  atrium.     An  example  of  this  type  of  tablinum 


On  one  side  of  the  tablinum  ran  the  andron,  a  corridor  uniting  the 


^--7' 


Atrium  and  TaWinuni  of  the  House  of  Pansn 


is  found  in  that  part  of  the  House  of  Siricus  which  is  situated  on  the  Vico 
del  Lupanare. 

The  tablinum  is  nearly  always  raised  one  step  above  the  atrium,  and 
in  certain  houses  the  family  archives  were  kept  there.  In  the  summer,  on 
great  occasions,  the  shutters  and  the  hangings  were  thrown  back,  and 
banquets  were  given  in  the  tabiinum,  recalling  the  time  when  it  was  used  as 
a  triclinmm.  The  effect  must  have  been  extremely  picturesque  ;  the  guests 
looked  out  on  the  porticoes  of  the  petistylium  in  perspective,  and  on  the 
polychrome  walls  of  the  atrium ;  the  banquet  itself,  in  the  midst  of  these 
decorative  surroundings,  must  have  been  a  brilliant  scene. 


Mronze  Vessel  (Naples  Museum) 

atrium  and  peristy/iuw,  and  generally  found  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the 
tablinum* 

•  According  to  Mau,  the  terrn/aM'"«,  commonly  applied  to  these  corridors,  is  incorrect. 


IV 


THE   PERISTYLIUM-THE  VIRIDARIUM-MOSAIC    FOUNTAINS-THE 

AgUARIUM— THE  APOTHECA— THE   OiCUS-THE   EXEDRA— THE 

GARDEN— THE  TRICLINIA-THE   KITCHENS-THE   LATRIN/E- 

THE   BATHS— THE   VENEREUM 


THE  pcristylium*  a  Greek  innovation,  resembled  the  Corinthian 
atrium,  but  was  much  larger.  The  area  had  increased  considerably. 
Here  the  Pompeians  walked,  and  their  children  played  and  ran 
about,  when  the  open  court  was  not  laid  out  with  beds  of  flowers  as  a 
viridarium.  In  the  centre  there  ^^r^ piscincp,  and  statues,  fountains  forming 
cascades,  tables  and  basins  of  marble,  terms  and  bronzes,  adorned  this 
charming  spot,  the  favourite  living-room  of  the  household.  The  porticoes 
were  wide,  and  numerous  columns  supported  the  attic  storey.  The  water 
from  the  roof  ran  into  a  gutter  at  the  foot  of  the  colonnade,  and  was  carried 
off  into  cisterns. 

One  of  the  largest  peristylia  is  that  of  the  Casa  del  Cenienario,  which 
was  discovered  in  1879,  exactly  1800  years  after  the  destruction  of  the  city.t 
The  special  interest  of  ihis  peristylium  lies  in  the  phases  of  style  shown  in 
its  decoration.  The  columns  of  the  portico,  some  of  which  are  in  good 
preservation,  are  coated  with  white  stucco  and  have  their  bases  painted 
red,  while  their  Tuscan  capitals  are  encircled  by  blue  and  scarlet  fillets. 

•  The  arrangement  of  the  peristylium  is  like  that  of  the  old  cloisters. 

f  This  anniversary  was  celebrated  by  ffites,  and  a  fine  series  of  reproductions,  entitled  Pompa 
e  la  Regione  sotUrata,  was  published  for  the  occasion. 


IHE   GRyKCO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


a73 


1  he  more  dilapidated  columns,  however,  show  traces  of  having  been 
altered*  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  day ;  a  wooden  tn^llis  between  them, 
enclosing  the  area  of  the  pcristylium,  converted  it  into  a  court,  which  was 
possibly  used  to  shut  in  live  animals.  Originally  this  peristylium  was  of 
the  Ionic  order,  with  fluted  columns  of  tufa  ;  and  the  fallen  capitals  that 
lie  by  the  wall  are  of  the  same  material.      But  only  the  columns  had  been 


Perisfyliuin  (House  of  Holconiiis) 

.preserved,  while  their  flutings  had  been  filled  up  and  levelled  by  a  thick 
coat  of  stucco,  and  the  new  capitalst  are  of  the  Roman-Doric  order.  Some 
of  the  columns,  indeed,  have  been  entirely  replaced  by  columns  of  brick. 
The  red  bases  are  not  of  very  ancient  date,  and  were  often  a  later  addition 
to  the  shafts  of  fluted  tufa,  for  in  the  oldest  houses  we  do  not  find  these 

*  This  alteration  must  have  taken  place  in  the  year  15  a.d.,  as  is  shown  by  an  inscription  on 
the  walls. 

\  The  capitals  in  Pompei  are  often  extremely  fantastic  in  style,  and  do  not  belong  to  any 
recognised  order.     They  are  "  Pompeian,"  and  show  traces  of  Egyptian  influence. 

2  M 


It 


IV 


THE   PERISTYLIUM-THE  VIRIDARIUM-MOSAIC    FOUNTAINS-THE 

AQUARIUM— THE  APOTHECA— THE   CECUS-THE   EXEDRA— THE 

GARDEN— THE  TRICLINIA— THE   KITCHENS— THE   LATRIN/E— 

THE   BATHS— THE   VENEREUM 


THE  peristyiium*  a  Greek  innovation,  resembled  the  Corinthian 
atrium,  but  was  much  larger.  The  area  had  increased  considerably. 
Here  the  Pompeians  walked,  and  their  children  played  and  ran 
about,  when  the  open  court  was  not  laid  out  with  beds  of  flowers  as  a 
viridarium.  In  the  centre  there  ^n^x^ piscina,  and  statues,  fountains  forming 
cascades,  tables  and  basins  of  marble,  terms  and  bronzes,  adorned  this 
charming  spot,  the  favourite  living-room  of  the  household.  The  porticoes 
were  wide,  and  numerous  columns  supported  the  attic  storey.  The  water 
from  the  roof  ran  into  a  gutter  at  the  foot  of  the  colonnade,  and  was  carried 
off  into  cisterns. 

One  of  the  largest  peristylia  is  that  of  the  Casa  del  Centenario,  which 
was  discovered  in  1879,  exactly  i8cx)  years  after  the  destruction  of  the  city.t 
The  special  interest  of  this  peristy/ium  lies  in  the  phases  of  style  shown  in 
its  decoration.  The  columns  of  the  portico,  some  of  which  are  in  good 
preservation,  are  coated  with  white  stucco  and  have  their  bases  painted 
red,  while  their  Tuscan  capitals  are  encircled  by  blue  and  scarlet  fillets. 

•  The  arrangement  of  the  peristyiium  is  like  that  of  the  old  cloisters. 

i  This  anniversary  was  celebrated  by  fites,  and  a  fine  series  of  reproductions,  entitled  Pompd 
e  la  Rigione  sotterata,  was  published  for  the  occasion. 


THE  GRyECO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


«73 


The  more  dilapidated  columns,  however,  show  traces  of  having  been 
altered*  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  day ;  a  wooden  trt^llis  between  them, 
enclosing  the  area  of  the  peristyiium,  converted  it  into  a  court,  which  was 
possibly  used  to  shut  in  live  animals.  Originally  this  peristyiium  was  of 
the  Ionic  order,  with  fluted  columns  of  tufa  ;  and  the  fallen  capitals  that 
lie  by  the  wall  are  of  the  same  material.      But  only  the  columns  had  been 


Peristyiium  (House  of  Molconiiis) 

j)reserved,  while  their  flutings  had  been  filled  up  and  levelled  by  a  thick 
coat  of  stucco,  and  the  new  capitals!  are  of  the  Roman-Doric  order.  Some 
of  the  columns,  indeed,  have  been  entirely  replaced  by  columns  of  brick. 
The  red  bases  are  not  of  very  ancient  date,  and  were  often  a  later  addition 
to  the  shafts  of  fluted  tufa,  for  in  the  oldest  houses  we  do  not  find  these 

*  This  alteration  must  have  taken  place  in  the  year  15  a.d.,  as  is  shown  by  an  inscription  on 
the  walls. 

f  The  capitals  in  Pompei  are  often  extremely  fantastic  in  style,  and  do  not  belong  to  anj- 
recognised  order.     They  are  "  Pompeian,"  and  show  traces  of  Egyptian  influence. 

Z  M 


ff 


274 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND   ART 


coloured  bands  on  the  columns,  which  are  often  without  bases,  as  in  Greek- 
Doric. 

Another  instance  of  one  of  these  restorations  of  the  late  period  is  given 
m  a  plate  in  Mazois'  book,  showing  a  tetrastyle  atrium,  the  dilapidated 
columns  of  which  display  a  lower  course  of  fluted  tufa,  surmounted  by  a 
shaft  built  entirely  of  bricks.  The  fluted  surfaces  have  been  levelled  and  a 
coat  of  stucco  applied  to  the  whole  of  the  column,  the  base  of  which  is 
painted  black.  Broadly  speaking,  it  may  therefore  be  asserted  that  brick 
columns  covered  with  stucco  were  used  after  the  year  15  a.d.,  and  that 
the  tufa  columns  are  relics  of  old  houses  dating  from  the  Graico-Samnite 
period. 

Many  houses— some  of  the  most  luxurious  among  the  number-had 
not  sufficient  space  for  a  complete  peristylium.  They  have  courts  with 
three  porticoes,  or,  when  the  garden  lies  in  an  angle  of  the  court,  with 
two.  When  this  was  tiie  case,  pilasters  were  painted  on  the  walls 
opposite  the  columns,  as  in  the  House  of  Jucundus,  where  there  is 
a  graceful  marble  basin  and  fountain  of  water  between  two  central 
columns,  opposite  an  excdra.  Sometimes  these  simulated  pilasters  are 
in  stucco  relief,  as  in  the  Casa  delle  Paretc  nere,  which  has  a  peristylium 
with  three  porticoes;  and  in  the  Casa  di  Adone,  which  has  two.  In  the 
Casa  delle  Nozze  d'Argmto  there  is  a  Rhodian  peristylium,  in  which  the 
portico  near  the  atrium  is  higher  than  those  on  the  other  sides 

In  several  gardens  .md peristylia  there  are  mosaic  fountains  or  water- 
towers,  with  niches  and  statuet  es,  against  the  principal  wall.  Only  the 
mosaic  fountains  are  in  good  preservation :  the  dominant  blue  of  their 
decorations  is  gay  and  attractive.  Statuettes  of  Cupids  or  fishers  stood 
on  the  pedestals,  and  their  main  outlines  are  ornamented  with  shells, 
which  give  them  a  rococo  character  not  unpleasing  in  the  Pompeian  mise- 
en-scene.  One  of  these  fountains  has  on  its  two  uprights  lamps  in 
the  form  of  masks  that  could  be  filled  with  oil,  from  which  the  light 
shone    through    the   eyes   and    mouth    with    a   somewhat   fantastic   effect. 


THE    GR^:CO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


275 


There  are  mosaic  fountains  in   the  Casa   dell'  Orso,  dei  Scienzata,  della 
Piccola    Fontana,    della 
Grande    Fontana,    and 
in  two  other  houses. 
(See  Plate  XII.) 

A  mosaic  niche 
was  also  found  (in  the 
Casa  del  Centenario), 
standing  above  some 
marble  steps  down  ' 
which  the  water  fell  in 
a  cascade  into  ei piscina. 
The  ornament  is  Egyp- 
tian    m     character,     and  Rliclian  l-ensiylmm  of  the  Casadelle  Nozze  dArg.mo 

a  statue  of  Silenus,  found  not  far  from  the   fountains,  probably  occupied 


Apotheca  ( House  of  Paquius  Proculus) 

the  niche,  which   is  the  centre   of  a   scheme  of  decoration  consisting  of 
wild  animals.     On  a  level  with  the  fountains  there  are  basins  of  cement 


aj6 


POMPEI:    THE    CITY.    ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 


which  may  have  been  used  as  fish-ponds,  and  which  have  circular  openings 

fitted  with    perforated   plugs   of  terra  cotfa. 
The  outer  walls  are  painted  with  ducks,  fish, 
and  fc/acea-  on  a  blue-grey  background,  and 
have  almost  the  effect  of  an  actual  aquarium. 
Rooms  which  were  used  for  various  pur- 
poses opened  into  the  porticoes  of  the  />ert- 
stylium,  and  are  found  in  the  storey  above. 
They  were  occupied  chiefly  by  the  servants. 
The  more  richly  decorated  ones  served  as  the 
women's  apar.ments  {gyncccea\   which  were 
always    in    the   most   secluded   part   of    the 
house.     They  were   also  used  as   chambers 
w^    .    V,    .-.  ^°'"  "i^'nbers  of  the  family,   like  the  rooms 

Wooden  Cupboard  (Apoihcai)reconsirucicd  ^  i  uuiiib 

(M.«..„.ofPomp.i)  round  the  alrium,  especially  when  the  latter 

were  reserved  for  strangers ;  and   they  were  even  sometimes  turned  i  to 
apothecfP,    for   the    nails 
and    the    marks  left  by 
the -shelves  and  boards 
are  still  to  be  seen  on 
the  walls. 

At  the  back  of  the 
peristylium  there  usually 
stood  the  wcus  and  the 
exedra  —  corresponding 
lo  our  modern  drawing- 
rooms— where      people  Corinthian  (Ecus  (C«adiMel«gro) 

met  together,  talked,  danced,  read,  and  heard  music.  At  Pompei  there  were 
also  Corinthian  a-ci,  with  columns  which  may  have  supported  a  terrace, 
as  in  the  Casa  del  Laberinto  and  the  Casa  di  Meleagro.  On  great  days 
the  cecus  was  the  dining-room.     Sometimes   in   the  .r.«.-though  never 


THE   GR^CO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


a77 


in  the  exedra — the  end  wall  is  pierced  by  a  bay  opening  into  the  xystus 
(or  garden  where  fruit  and  vegetables  were  grown),  which  lay  at  the 
back  of  the  house.  The  kitchen  garden  was  the  province  of  the  wife, 
who  made  pickles  with  vinegar.  The  cabbages  of  Pompei  were  celebrated, 
and  Pliny  writes  that  it  is  pleasant  to  grow  some  of  one's  food  at  home. 

The  winter  triclinium  also  opened   into  the  peristylium,  and   stood 


Vaulted  Q^cus  (Region  IX.  Insula  I.  Street  of  Stabia;) 

in  one  corner  of  the  portico.  (Some  of  these  triclinia  also  communicated 
with  the  atrium.)  This  room  often  has  a  large  window,  for  the  Pompeians 
would  not  have  taken  their  principal  meal  in  darkness.  This  meal,  the 
ccena,  was  eaten  about  the  eighth  hour,  before  three  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon.  Three  couches  or  triclinia  surrounded  the  table  on  three 
sides,  each  couch  accommodating  three  persons,  making  nine  in  all.  Meals 
were  eat*  n  reclining  and  resting  on  one  elbow,  hence  the  expression  ''to 
lean  on  ones  elbow  in  a  mans  house''*  meant  to  dine  out.     This  custom 

*  Petronius  XXVII. 


•7« 


POMPEI:   THE   CITV,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


Summtrr  Tricliiiium  in  the  House  of  Sallust 


Of  reclining  was  not  general,  except  among  the  wealthy,  and  paintings 
in  Pompei  show  that  light  meals  were  taken  seated.  Originally  the  dining- 
room  was  called  the  arnaculum^  and  was  a  room  in  the  upper  storey ;  hence 
all  upper  rooms  came  to  be  known  as  cmtacula,  just  as  every  cecus  was 

called  a  triclinium,  even 
when  there  was  but  one 
couch. 

Besides   the  winter 
triclinium,    there    was   the 
summer     triclinium,    shel- 
tered   by  a   velttm,  or   a 
trellis    of   vines   supported 
by   four    pillars,   on    which 
were    painted     vine-leaves 
and   bunches  of  grapes  (house  in  the  Street  of  Nola).     In  the  summer 
trul^nn^m  the  couches  are  not  movable;  they  consist  of  three  blocks  of 
stone,    each   sloping   slightly   outwards.     A    small   chafing-dish    of    brick 
where   hot   dishes  were   placed,  is   sometimes   found.       In    the   centre   of 
the  .couches   stands   a   square   or   circular   block   of  stone   covered    by   a 
marble  slab,  or  a  light  monopod.um.      This  table  seems  very  small  when 
we    remember   that    nine  people  could  dine   in   a   triclinium;    but    there 
were   always   slaves   to   serve   the   guests   and    to   hold   and   hand    what- 
ever  was   required.       The   remains    of    the   fe..t    were    thrown    on    the 
floor;    for    in    mosaics    of    triclinia   bones,    peelings,    and   scraps   of   all 
kmds  are  represented  in  the   ^^ asarotos  c.cos"  ("unswept  ceci ").   and  the 
dogs  and  cats   ate   up  what   was   thus   provided   for   them.      Only   glass 
goblets  or  cantkari,  little   bowls,  earthenware,  glass,  or  silver  plates  were 
placed  on  the  monopodium.     The  paintings  on  the  wall  at  the  back  of  the 
truhmum  represented  hunting  scenes  or  simulated  architecture.     A  small 
altar   was   sometimes   placed    before   the    summer   tricltnium,    where    the 
master  of  the  house  made  offering  to  the  gods  before  the  meal. 


tME   GR.4<:CO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


279 


Among  the  houses 
with  summer  triclinia  are 
the  Casa  delV Ancora, 
the  Casa  delle  Nozze 
liArgentOy  and  the  House 
of  Sallust.  In  a  quarter 
of  Pompei  that  is  not 
often  visited,  Region  I., 
there  are  two  couches  of 

stone  at    right    angles    in  a  «......,,  r  Triclinium  (Region  IX.  Insula  V.  S.r.vt  of  NoU) 

corner,  forming  a  biclinium,   the  only  example  of  such   an  arrangement,  I 

3E!!E3   believe,  in  Pompei. 

The  kitchen  of  the  Gra^co- Roman  house  was 
furnished  with  large  brick  stoves,  on  which  stood 
iron  tripods,  with  saucepans  {cacabi)  and  gridirons. 
all  of  which  have  been  left  as  they  were  found 
in  the  curious  House  of  the  Vettii.  Sometimes 
there  is  an  altar  to  Fornax  against  the  walls. 
One  in  very  good  preservation  was  found  in  1898, 

with  yellow  serpents  painted   on   a   crimson    background.     The  stove  is 

built  on  the  same  model 

as  that  in  the  House  of 

the   Vettii,    and    many 

others.      The    kitchens 

of  Pompei  were  by  no 

means   luxurious,    or 

even  clean,  to  judge  by 

the  modern  kitchens  in 

the       country      round,  Biclimum(R^Ri..n  1.  insula  I.) 

which  are  very  like  the  kitchens  of  ancient  times  in  arrangement,  for  in 
Southern   Italy  habits  have  changed  but  little. 


M.irble  Monopoditim 


i8o 


POMFKI:    THE   ClTV,    ITS    LIFE   AND    ART 


The  siime   may  be  siiid  of  the 
if 


Dog-KoniiL-l  ni>;iran  Atrium  (kLgi-.n  l.\    In    il.i  V.) 

pierced    board.      (Several   ol    ihese 

of  the  seat  the  floor  is 

paved,  and  slopes  towards 

a  small  opening,  through 

which  liquids  drained 

away.       This     primitive 

arrangement  still  obtains 

in   Italy.     In  one  house 

in    Pompei    there    is    a 

recess   in    the  wall  of  a 

passage  in  which  is  fixed 

a  tufa  basin,  open  at  the 

bottom,  which  may  have 


iatrime,  which  were  often  close  to  the 
kitchen,  through  which  it  was 
necessary  to  pass  to  reach  them. 
They  are  extremely  small,  and  must 
have  been  quite  dark ;  in  some 
cases  they  are  only  ventilated  from 
the  kitchen.  The  seat  was  made  of 
two  blocks  of  masonry,  on  which 
was  placed  a  slab  of  marble  or  a 

have   been    reconstructed.)      In    front 


I^trinsp 

apodytcrium  is  still  preserved,  and 


The  Kitchen  of  the  Vettii 

served  as  a  urinal   or  a  vomitorium, 
or  both. 

Some  of  the  more  important 
houses  have  private  baths;  for  ex- 
ample, the  Casa  delU  Nozze  d'Ar- 
genin,  del  Centenario,  del  Laberinto, 
and  the  House  of  Blandus.  In  the 
baths  of  the  Casa  del  Centenario  the 
the  open  frigidarium,  with  its  piscina 


THE   GR^CO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


281 


to  which  the  bathers  mounted  by  a  few  steps.  The  tepidarium  and  the 
caldarium  had  walls 
of  hollow  bricks. 
The  baths  of  the 
Casa  delle  Nozze 
d'Argento  are  rather 
picturesque  in  appear- 
ance. The  piscina, 
which    is    fed    by    a 

marble      fountain,       is  Bronze  Brazier  to  place  in  the  Baths  (Naples  Museum) 

sunk  in  a  garden.  The  apodyteriwn,  where  also  the  inmates 
took  their  siesta,  was  decorated  with  paintings,  and  communi- 
cates direcdy  with  the  piscina  by  a  small  door.  Another  door 
on  the  opposite  side  led  from  the  garden  to  a  caldarium  in 
the  form  of  a  semi-dome,  with  a  window  that  can  be  seen 
from  the  piscina.  This  corner  of  Pompei  is  very  oriental 
in  character,  especially  when  the  sun  throws  long  blue  shadows, 
bringing  out  the  strong  lights  on  the  yellow  walls. 

iJronze  Tap  ,-,,  .  . 

(Naples  Museum)  1  hc  Venereum  m  certam  houses  is  near  the  baths.     The 

master  of  the  Casa  del  Centenario  possessed  not  only  large  rooms  and  a 
double  atrium,  but  a  small  set  of 
private  rooms  (of  which  the  baths 
formed  part).  They  consist  of  a 
charming  triclinium  decorated  with 
paintings,  and  a  procceton,  the  walls 
painted  with  nude  dancing-girls,  which 
leads  to  the  venereum,  the  room  set 
apart  for  the  pleasures  of  Venus. 
Two  panels  of  this  room  are  painted 


^-o 


Bronze  Brazier  (Naples  Museum) 

with  obscene   subjects,  and    that   at   the   end   of  the    room    represents   a 
drunken  Hercules  overcome  by  Cupid.     There  is  a  small  opening  rather 

2  N 


382 


POMPEI:    THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 


above  the  eye-level  in  the  wall  which  separates  this  room  from  the  procceton 
or  ante-chamber,  and  through  this  window  food  and  stimulants  were 
probably  passed  into  the  venereum.  A  secret  door,  the  posticum,  leads 
from  this  room  into  the  lane  near  by. 


Baths  in  the  Casa  deUe  Nozse  d'Argento 

Another  venereum,  also  decorated  with  erotic  subjects,  was  found  in 
a  house  close  by,  and  there  are  others  in  the  Street  of  the  Theatres, 
and  in  the  House  of  Sallust  and  of  the  Vettii.  In  the  Vico  di  Eumachia 
there  is  also  a  room  in  which  was  found  a  painting  of  two  figures  (now 
removed  to  the  Naples  Museum)  with  the  well-known  inscription :  "  Lente 
impel le." 


L 


SMALLER    HOUSES— THE   SOLARIUM— THE  STAIRS— THE  CCENACULUM— 

THE  CELLARS 

BESIDES  the  large  and  richly-decorated  houses,  there  are  many 
smaller  houses  with  neither  atrium  nor  peristylium.  Sometimes 
it  is  the  tablinum  which  is  wanting,  as  in  the  House  of  Siricus, 
near  the  Strada  Stabiana.  In  the  same  street  (Region  IX.,  Insula  V.) 
there  is  a  small  dwelling,  the  entire  front  of  which  is  taken  up  by  a  shop, 
which  forms  the  entrance.  Leading  from  the  shop  are  a  tablinum, 
and  a  triclinium  with  a  large  bay  opening  on  to  a  small  court  where 
flowers  were  grown,  which  gave  air  and  light  to  two  rooms.  At  the 
back  a  small  staircase  leads  to  the  rooms  on  the  upper  storey,  where 
the  windows  all  look  out  on  the  little  court. 

Other  houses,  like  the  houses  of  which  we  give  the  plans,  had  a 
sort  of  truncated  atrium.  In  Fig.  A  the  kitchens  and  the  latrincr  are 
situated  on  one  side  of  the  prothyrum,  which  leads  to  the  atrium;  and 
the  impluvium  stands  against  the  wall.  On  either  side  of  it  there 
are  stairs  leading  to  the  upper  rooms  or  coenacula.  Opposite  the 
impluvium  there  is  a  tablinum,  a  triclinium,  two  rooms,  and  a  small' 
chamber  in  which  the  under  part  of  the  staircase  forms  a  large 
vaulted  recess. 

In  Fig.  B  the  shop  opens  into  the  street,  and  there  is  a  kitchen 
at  the  back  of  the  house.  This  shop  leads  into  a  small  atrium,  with 
a    treble-pitched    roof   supported    by  two   columns   and  two  half-columns 


284 


POMPEI  :   THE    CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


THE   GR.4^rO-KOMAN    HOUSE 


Fig.  A 


placed  against   the  wall,  which    runs  along   one  side   of  the   impluvium. 
There  is  another  room  on  the  ground-floor  and  several  on  the  upper  storey. 
Some  houses,  though  without  an  atrmm.  have  a  fair-sized  open  space 
which  was   used   as  a   riridarium,  or  pleasure-garden,  and   had  a  portico 
I  I       ch^ur        on   one    or    more   of   its   sides,    where 
blocks  of  masonry,  hollowed  like  troughs, 
were  placed  between   the  columns  and 
filled  with    shrubs   and    flowers.     Such 
a  cool  and  pleasant  corner  formed  part 
of  the  house  of  a   small    tradesman  of 
Pompei.     Every  family,  indeed,   seems 
to  have  had   its  -home,"  whether  large  or  small,  rich  or  poor.* 

Nothing  gives  a  clearer  or  more  vivid  picture  of  the  household  life 

of  the  time  than  a  visit  to  these 
Pompeian  homes,  where  every 
detail  was  arranged  to  make  life  as 
pleasant  as  possible,  and  where 
every  house  of  any  importance  was 
a  little  centre  under  the  protection 

Modern  House  in  the  Country  near  Pompei  ^^  ^^  gods.       Thc    Pompeians    Cer- 

tainly took  pleasure  in  surrounding  themselves  with  pretty  toys.  The 
marble  statuettes  of  the  atrium  and  peristylium,  the  vivid  colours  of 
the  mural  decorations  with  their  erotic  images,  the  cool  porticoes  shaded 
by  the  velarium,  the  scent  of  the  flower-beds  in  the  viridarium,  the 
plash  of  the  fountains,  the  gentle  doves  and  brilliant  peacocks  that 
haunted  the  peristyliumA  all  combined  to  delight,  and  to  give  charm  to  an 
indolent  life  passed  in  the  midst  of  such  fair  surroundings. 

•  Many  small  houses  in  Pompei  bear  a  strong  likeness  to  modern  houses  in  the  neighbourhood 
inhabited  by  peasants.  They  have  the  same  stairs,  the  same  terraces,  the  same  vaulted  rooms, 
the  same  outs.de  windows,  set  rather  high  in  the  wall.  Every  detail  recalls  the  little  houses  of  the 
ancients. 

+  Some  paintings  represent  women  feeding  peacocks  and  doves. 


^85 


in  the  House 


The  houses  of  Pompei,  indeed,  display  the  utmost  fancy  and  ingenuity 
consistent  with  the  taste  and  fortune  of  their 
owners  and  the  exigencies  of  the  sites  on 
which  they  stand.  The  houses  that  overlook 
the  valley  have  a  magnificent  view,  and  are 
built  with  infinite  art  and  a  strong  feeling  for 
the  beauties  of  Nature.  They  are  ranged  one 
above  the  other,  and  have  several  storeys 
leading  to  rooms  roofed  by  broad  terraces 
always  bathed  in  sunlight ;  these  were  shaded 
by  awnings  or  by  trellises  of  creepers.  The  \. 
bases  of  the  supporting  columns  are  still  to 
be  seen.  In  these  solaria  full  of  flowers  the 
heat  of  the  day  was  tempered  by  the  sea- 
breezes ;  and    in  the  evening,  from  the  nrivi   •'^oi^^'^'"'"  (Fainting  in  an  cecus 

^^  -,  ^  oftheVettii) 

leged  houses  that  lie  between  the  Gate  of 
the  Seashore  and  the  Villa  of  Diomedes,  the 
inmates  could  watch  the  setting  sun  as  it 
sank  into  the  sea. 

The  houses  in  the  interior  of  the  city 
had  a  view  of  the  mountains  from  the 
windows  of  the  upper  rooms  or  coenacula, 
and  a  small  solarium  was  frequently  placed 
on  the  terraced  roofs.  We  can  judge  of 
the  appearance  of  these  solaria  from  pic- 
tures representing  them.  Many  of  the 
house-roofs  of  Pompei  must  have  been 
SLiircasemegionVH.  Insula  VI.)  nearly  flat  or  sHghtly  rounded.     They  were 

made  for  the  most  part  of  beaten  mortar.  Even  the  houses  with  tiled 
roofs  sloped  very  little.  There  are  specimens  of  these  roofs  in  various 
drawings. 


a84 


POMPEI:   THE    CITY,    ITS   LIFE    AND   ART 


Hg.  A 


Fig.  B 


placed  against  the  wall,  which    runs  along   one  side   of  the   impiuvium. 
There  is  another  room  on  the  ground-floor  and  several  on  the  upper  storey. 
Some  houses,  though  without  an  atnttm,  have  a  fair-sized  open  space 
which  was  used  as  a  viridarium,  or  pleasure-garden,  and   had  a  portico 

n — 


on  one  or  more  of  its  sides,  where 
blocks  of  masonry,  hollowed  like  troughs, 
were  placed  between  the  columns  and 
filled  with  shrubs  and  flowers.  Such 
a  cool  and  pleasant  corner  formed  part 
of  the  house  of  a  small  tradesman  of 
Pompei.  Every  family,  indeed,  seems 
to  have  had   its  "home,"  whether  large  or  small,  rich  or  poor.* 

Nothing  gives  a  cleiirer  or  more  vivid  picture  of  the  household  life 

of  the  time  than  a  visit  to  these 
Pompeian  homes,  where  every 
detail  was  arranged  to  make  life  as 
pleasant  as  possible,  and  where 
every  house  of  any  importance  was 
a  little  centre  under  the  protection 

Modern  House  in  the  Country  near  Pompei  *^'    '"^  gods.        The    PompeianS    Cer- 

tainly took  pleasure  in  surrounding  themselves  with  pretty  toys.  The 
marble  statuettes  of  the  atrium  and  peristylium,  the  vivid  colours  of 
the  mural  decorations  with  their  erotic  images,  the  cool  porticoes  shaded 
by  the  velarium,  the  scent  of  the  flower-beds  in  the  viridarium,  the 
plash  of  the  fountains,  the  gentle  doves  and  brilliant  peacocks  that 
haunted  the  perislyliumA  all  combined  to  delight,  and  to  give  charm  to  an 
indolent  life  passed  in  the  midst  of  such  fair  surroundings. 

•  Many  small  houses  in  Pompei  bear  a  strong  likeness  to  modern  houses  in  the  neighbourhood 
inhabited  by  peasants.  They  have  the  same  stairs,  the  same  terraces,  the  same  vaulted  rooms, 
the  same  outside  windows,  set  rather  high  in  the  wall.  Every  detail  recalls  the  little  houses  of  the 
ancients. 

+  Some  paintings  represent  women  feeding  peacocks  and  doves. 


THE   OR/ECO-KOMAN    HOUSE 


285 


The  houses  of  Pompei,  indeed,  display  the  utmost  fancy  and  ingenuity 
consistent  with  the  taste  and  fortune  of  their 
owners  and  the  exigencies  of  the  sites  on 
which  they  stand.  The  houses  that  overlook 
the  valley  have  a  magnificent  view,  and  are 
built  with  infinite  art  and  a  strong  feeling  for 
the  beauties  of  Nature.  They  are  ranged  one 
above  the  other,  and  have  several  storeys 
leading  to  rooms  roofed  by  broad  terraces 
always  bathed  in  sunlight ;  these  were  shaded 
by  awnings  or  by  trellises  of  creepers.  The 
bases  of  the  supporting  columns  are  still  to 
be  seen.  In  these  solaria  full  of  flowers  the 
heat  of  the  day  was  tempered  by  the  sea- 
breezes ;  and    in  the  evening,  from  the   nrivi- ''*°''*'^'"'" '^*'"''°s  "*  *"  ^-*^"* '"  ^''^  ^^'"^ 

^^  ^  op  oftheVettii) 

leged  houses  that  lie  between  the  Gate  of 
the  Seashore  and  the  Villa  of  Diomedes,  the 
inmates  could  watch  the  setting  sun  as  it 
sank  into  the  sea. 

The  houses  in  the  interior  of  the  city 
had  a  view  of  the  mountains  from  the 
windows  of  the  upper  rooms  or  ccenacula, 
and  a  small  solarium  was  frequently  placed 
on  the  terraced  roofs.  We  can  judge  of 
the  appearance  of  these  solaria  from  pic- 
tures representing  them.  Many  of  the 
house-roofs  of  Pompei  must  have  been 
nearly  flat  or  slightly  rounded.  They  were 
made  for  the  most  part  of  beaten  mortar.  Even  the  houses  with  tiled 
roofs  sloped  very  little.  There  are  specimens  of  these  roofs  in  various 
drawings. 


Staircase  (Region  VII.  Insula  VI. ) 


286 


POMPEI:   THE    CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND   ART 


THE   GR^CO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


387 


■m 


The  staircases  leading  to  the  upper  rooms  were  of  several  kinds. 
The  majority  were  made  of  wood  and  have  entirely  disappeared ;  traces 
of  them  may  be  found  against  the  wall ;  and  the  lowest  steps,  which 
were   made   of  stone  or  masonry,  are   still   in   existence.     It   is   possible 


St(Mre-room  (Region  VIII  Insula  IV.) 

to  mount  these,  but  the  steps  are  very  steep  and  narrow.  The  stair- 
case did  not  always  consist  of  one  flight ;  it  sometimes  turned  off  at  a 
right  angle,  forming  a  small  landing  half  way  up.  The  staircase  was 
often  supported  by  a  stone  arch,  forming  a  large  recess,  which  was 
sometimes  used  as  a  shrine  for  the  Lares,  and  sometimes  as  a  cupboard 
or  apotheca. 

A  house  in  the  Street  of  Nola  is  an  exception  to  the  general  rule, 
for  the  staircase  is  comparatively  broad,  sufificiently  so  for  three  people 
to  walk  abreast  on  it.  Some  large  houses  have  three  separate  staircases, 
like  the  Casa  di  Arriana  ;  for  here  the  loftiness  of  the  tablinum,  the  cecus, 
and  the  triclinium  prevented  communication  on  the  upper  storey,  where 


the  women's  apartments  and  the  slaves'  quarters  (ergastum)  were  situated, 
and  stores  of  all  kinds  were  kept.  Indeed,  the  ccenaculum  over  the 
atrium  and  that  over  the  peristylium  seem  always  to  have  formed  two 
distinct  suites,  and  had  separate  staircases.  The  ccenacuia,  which  were 
let  by  some  householders,  often  had  a  private  staircase  leading  directly 
from  the  street.  These  upper  rooms  were  probably  tenanted  by  the 
small  tradesmen  of  Pompei  (inquilini),  in  whose  shops,  as  a  rule,  we 
find  no  "trace  of  livinof-rooms. 

Cellars  are  very  rare  at  Pompei,  and  several  have  been  walled  up 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  mephitic  gases.  They  are  only  found,  as  a 
rule,  in  the  dwellings  of  large  householders  or  of  wine  merchants.  There 
are  immense  cellars  near  the  Porta  Marina,  but  they  are  rather  storehouses 
than  cellars,  and  their  grated  air-holes  look  out  on  to  a  garden  sloping 
down  from  them.  Some  wine-merchants  and  other  dealers  simply  planted 
their  dolia  in  the  soil  of  their  gardens. 


■MMMiMI 


-**^'^^ 


THE   GR.4<:CO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


289 


^ 


» 


VI 


VARIOUS   HOUSES 

WE  will  next  examine  houses  which  have  certain  distinctive  features. 
The  first  we  will  take  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  Pompei,  the  Casa  del 
FauHo,  so  called  from  the  bronze  statue  of  a  dancing  faun  found  in 
ihe  centre  of  the  impluvium.      Before  the  door  on  the  footpath  of  opus 

signiiium  is   inscribed  in  while   letters   the  word    HAVE 
(greeting).       The  house   has   the  appearance   of  a  small 
palace.      The  casings  of  coloured  stucco,  th-  rich  mosaic 
of  the  Battle  of  Arbela  (see  Part   VI.).  the  Tuscan  and 
the  tetrastyle  atrium,   the    Corinthian  cavcedium  and  the 
immense    peristylium,    impress     the    spectator    by    their 
-^^^   g  simplicity  and   the  graceful  proportions  of  their  columns 
-■    ^  and    pilasters.     There  are  no  paintings   in  the    Casa   del 
Fautio,    with    the   exception   of   two   small    monochromes 
representing  Diana  and  Apollo  Citharsdus.     The  decora- 
tion consists  entirely  of  mosaics  and  imitations  of  marble. 
Two  small  altars  were  found  here.     One  of  travertine, 
dedicated  to  Flora,  had  an  Oscan  inscription  ;  and  en  the 

Casa  del  Fuunu  . 

other   IS   inscribed   the  name   of  Maius  Purius,  ijuastor. 

Inscriptions  were  also  found  on  the  columns  :•  "  Victoria  vale  et  ubique 

vis  suaviler  sUr»uUs"-"Wxao,y  and  greeting!    sneeze  where   you  will, 

and  good  luck  to  you!"     Some  skeletons  were  found  in   the  house,  and 

•  Fiorelli. 


one  of  them,  a  woman,  wore  on  her  finger  a  gold  ring  with  the  name  Cassia 
on  it ;  hence  the  House  of  the  Faun  is  also  known  as  the  Domus  Cassice. 
It  should  be  noticed  that  in  all  the  old  houses  in  Pompei,  dating  from 


Ostium  of  the  Casa  del  Fauno 

the  Samnite  period,  the  fronts  are  of  blocks  of  tufa— a  sure  sign  of  their 
antiquity.  The  Casa  del  Fauno  is  one  of  the  most  Greek  in  style  in  the 
city,  and  Monceaux,  when  he  visited  it,  went  so  far  as  to  say  that  he 
could  imagine  himself  at  Delos  or  Athens.* 

■   Saglio's  Diet.  Domus. 

2  O 


\l\i 


•90 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFK    ANP    ART 


The  House  of  Sallust  [Domus  coss.  Libani)  is  of  the  same  period,  but 
is  very  different  in  plan.  The  Tuscan  atrium  and  the  surrounding  rooms 
are  decorated  in  the  same  style  as  the  House  of  the  Faun ;  and  in  the 
centre  of  the  impluvitim  was  a  bronze  group  of  Hercules  with  the  Dot  with 
Brazen  Feet,  which  was  placed  before  a  marble  basin  and  sent  a  spray  of 
water  into  the  air.     The  special  interest  of  the  House  of  Sallust  lies  in  the 


Pteristylium  of  the  Casa  del  Fauno 

more  secluded  part,  where  there  is  a  viridarium  surrounded  on  three  sides 
by  a  peristyle  of  octagonal  columns  with  red  bases.  The  wall  at  the  farther 
end  has  a  large  painting  in  which  Actaeon,  surprising  Diana  bathing,  is 
changed  into  a  stag  and  torn  by  his  own  hounds.  The  background  of  the 
walls  of  the  peristyle  is  painted  black,  and  covered  with  fantastic  archi- 
tectural details,  birds,  and  fauns.  Phryxus  and  Helle,  and  Europa  on  the 
bull,  are  the  principal  figures  of   two  compositions  in  the  centre  of   the 

panels. 

In  this  house  there  are  two  triclinia,  a  winter  and  a  summer  one. 
The  summer  triclinium  lies  at  the  end  of  a  small  garden,  and  its  wall  is 
painted  with  a  large  landscape  representing  a  dense  wood.     Opposite  this 


THE    GR^XO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


api 


Peristylium 

■Anwiia 

Mt 


wall  there  was  a  portico  where  stone  boxes  filled  with  flowers  and  shrubs 
stood  in  the  intercolumniations. 

The  House  of  the  Labyrinth  (Casa  del  Laberinto)  is  built  on  the  same 
lines  as  the  Casa  del  Fauno,  but  it  has  only  one  peristylium,  and  its  mural 
decoration  dates  from  the  period  when  Pompei  was  a  Roman  colony 
(Second  Style,  see  Part  VI.).  Painting  replaces  coloured  stucco,  and  the 
little  rooms  at  the  back  of  the  house  are  decorated  with 
small  'friezes,  where  portraits  of  women  alternate  with 
grotesque  embryo-pigmies.  The  figures  are  painted  in 
monochrome,  while  the  decorations  imitate  the  richest 
kinds  of  marble.  Near  the  Corinthian  oecus,  already 
mentioned,  there  is  a  very  delicate  mosaic  of  Theseus 
killing  the  Minotaur  in  the  centre  of  the  Labyrinth,  from 
which  the  house  takes  its  name.  In  the  part  of  the 
house  near  the  Tuscan  atrium  stood  the  strong-box  ;  casa  del  Laberinto 
and  there  are  rooms  decorated  with  paintings  of  the  Rape  of  Europa 
and  the  Deserted  Ariadne.  K  pislrinutn,  with  all  its  mills  and  baths,  was 
also  found  here. 

The  House  of  Pansa,  which  we  gave  as  a  typical  specimen  of  a  Graeco- 
Roman  house,  is  part  of  an  "  island  "  called  the  insula  Arriana  Polliana, 
owned  by  one  Cneus  Nigidus  Maius,  who  lived  in  the  main  part  of  the 
house,  and  let  the  shops  and  outbuildings  {domus  conducticia)  through  an 
agent  named  Primus,  one  of  his  slaves.  The  fa9ade  dates  from  the 
Samnite  period.  The  whole  house,  although  it  has  but  one  atrium,  greatly 
resembles  the  Casa  del  Fauno, 

Scarcely  anything  remains  of  the  fine  paintings  that  once  decorated 
the  walls.  A  Danae  receiving  the  Golden  Shower  and  a  Seated  Nymph 
pouring  Water  from  a  Horn  were  among  them,  and  there  was  a  painting 
dedicated  to  Fornax  and  the  Lares  in  the  kitchen.  A  curious  group 
of  Bacchus  and  Ampelus  was  found  among  the  flower-beds  of  the 
viridarium. 


292 


POM  I' EI  :    IHE    CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 


The  House  of  the  Citharista  {Casa  del  Citarisia),  or  of  Lucius  Popidius 
Secundus,  has  two  atria  and  three  peristylia  on  different  levels,  for  the 
house  looks  into  two  streets,  one  of  which,  the  Street  of  Stabiae,  is  con- 
siderably lower  than  the  other.  The  Casa  del  Citarista  consisted  originally 
of  two  houses,  which  were  mjide  into  one  by  an  opening  between  two  of 
the  peristylia.  The  Apollo  Cithartrdus  was  found  in  this  house.  The 
cithara  has  disappeared,  but  the  god  still  holds  \\\e  plectrum.  The  bronze 
statue  is  life-size  and  deliberately  archaic  in  style  (see  Part  VI.).  It  is 
the  only  specimen  of  this  kind  hitherto  discovered  at  Pompei.  It  was 
found*  near  a  fountain  in  the  garden  of  one  of  \.\\^  peristylia,  the  walls  of 
which  were  decorated  with  fine  paintings.  These  were  at  once  removed 
to  Naples.  The  bronze  animals  in  the  Naples  Museum — a  Wild  Boar 
attacked  by  Dogs,  and  a  Serpent  and  Stag — were  taken  from  the  second 
garden,  where  they  served  as  jets  in  a  semicircular  marble  fountain.  The 
rooms  and  the  exedra  of  the  house  were  richly  decorated. 

The  House  of  Marcus  Lucretius  is  also  curious  and  interesting. 
Lucretius  was  a  duumvir  and  a  flamen  of  Mars ;  his  name  and  offices  are 
recorded  in  a  painting  found  in  the  house.  It  represents  all  kinds  of 
writing  materials,  a  tablet  with  two  divisions,  a  style,  a  spatula,  an 
inkstand,  and  bears  the  following  dedication  :  ''  M.  Lecrutio  flam.  Martis 
decurioni  Pompei."  In  plan  the  house  is  in  the  shape  of  a  letter  L.  In 
the  triclinium  was  found  a  lectisternium,  a  bronze  couch  ornamented  with 
plates  of  silver.  The  walls  are  covered  with  large  paintings  of  Hercules 
Drunk  in  the  House  of  Omphale,  with  Bacchantes ;  The  Infant  Bacchus  ; 
Sileni  and  Fauns ;  Bacchus  and  the  Bacchantes  holding  Thyrsi — all  very 
suitable  subjects  for  the  decoration  of  a  triclinium.  A  large  window  looks 
out  on  a  small  garden,  the  soil  of  which  is  banked  up  breast  high.  Little 
statuettes  and  animals  are  arranged  about  it  in  a  naively  childish  fashion. 
At  the  end  of  the  garden  is  a  small  niche  of  mosaic  and  shells,  ornamented 
with  dolphins  and  reeds,  and  occupied  by  a  white  marble  Silenus  holding  an 

•  In  the  excavations  of  1H53-54. 


*mt3.  ii^^tf •■». 


THE   GR^CO-ROMAN   HOUSE 


'93 


I  I 


fcatM-pij    D  '•orrque  ' 


Painting  in  the  House  ot  Lucretius 


amphora,  from  which  fell  a  stream  of  water.     On  the  left,  above  some  steps, 

is  a  court  where  a  staircase  led  to  the  upper  storey.     A  second  atrium,  with 

its  dependencies,  lies  in  the  short  limb  of  the  L, 

and  2i  prothyrum  opens  from  it  into  a  lane  near  by. 

The  House  of  Lucretius   is,   in    fact,  two  houses 

made  into  one  ;    in  the  smaller,  the  steward  and 

slaves  were  probably  lodged.     The  graffito  of  the 

labyrinth  was  discovered  in  this  house. 

The  House  of  the  Chase  (Casa  della  Caccid)  House  of  LicretiuT 

takes  its  name  from  a  painting  at  the  end  of  the  garden,  which  no  doubt 

represents  scenes  from  a  venatio  in  the 
amphitheatre :  a  wild  boar  wounded  by  a 
hunter  and  seized  by  a  dog  ;  a  bull  attacked 
by  a  leopard  and  chased  by  a  lion ;  roes, 
deer,  &c.     As  a  rule,  the  decoration  of  the 

rooms  in  this  house  belongs  to  the  late  period,  and   the   details   are   in 

bad  taste ;  the  single 

exception    is    the 

tablinum,  which  we 

reproduce      in     a 

coloured  plate 

(No.     IV.).       The 

delicate  blue   back- 
ground of  its  panels 

harmonises    very 

happily    with    the 

white     and     red 

columns  of  the  peri- 
style at  the  farther 

end.     The  tufa  faqade  dates  from  the  Samnite  period,  but  the  house  was 

rebuilt  after  the  earthquake  of  63. 


Tablinum  and  Viridarium  of  the  House  of  Lucretius 


294 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


THE   GR/ECO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


295 


The  House  of  the  Tragic  Poet  {Casadel  Poeta  tragico),  with  its  red  and 
yellow  walls,  is  reproduced  in  coloured  plate  No.  IV.  It  owes  its  name  to 
its  numerous  paintings  of  scenes  from  the  Iliad  and  its  mosaics  of  scenes 
from  various  plays.*  In  the  prothyrum  is  the  well-known  mosaic  01  a 
chained  dog,  with  the  words  Cave  Canem.    The  Tuscan  atrium  is  surrounded 

by  small  rooms  ;  next  to 
it  is  the  tablinunty  and  a 
portico  surrounding  the 
viridarium,  where  there 
is  an  adicula  to  the 
genii  of  the  house  and 
Silenus.  There  are  also 
other  rooms,  a  triclinium, 

Jkonze  Couch  for  Meals.  Lectisternuni(. Naples  Museum)  a    kitchen,     and     a     rOOm 

which  seems  to  have  been  used  as  an  apotheca. 

The  principal  paintings  found  here  are:  Chryseis  and  her  Father; 
Jupiter  and  JuHO  on  Mount  Ida;  Orestes,  Py lades,  and  Electra ;  Achilles 
and   Briseis :    Apollo    and  ^/R   \/    Ti*'^// 

Daphne  (treated  in  an  obscene  L  /  h  r 

manner);    and   a   composition  T' 

which  is  supposed  to  represent 
Terence  reading   Poetry   aloud    \  X  |X\ 
to  several  Persons.     The  paint- 
ing of  the  greatest  value,  how- 


m\ 


0  T  >  ^1] 


./h^'5 


ever,     is    the    Sacrifice    of  Ipht-        ^^^  ^^^^  ^  ^^  Libyrimh  (Graffito  in  the  House  of  Lucretius) 

genia,  which  is  possibly  a  copy  of  the  original  by  Timanthes.t 

The  House  of  the  Centenary  (Casa  del  Centenario)  was  so  named  in 
commemoration  of  the  eighteenth  centenary  of  the  destruction  of  Pompei, 
which  coincided  with  its  discovery  (1879).      It  is  also  called  the  House  of 

*  \nThe  Last  Days  of  Pompei,  by  Bulwer  Lytton,  the  hero  Glaucua  inhabits  this  house, 
t  See  Part  VI. 


the  Drunken  Faun,*  from  a  fine  statuette  which  stood  in  the  centre  of  the 
peristylium.  The  building,  as  a  whole,  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the 
Roman  period  in  Pompei,  and  the  decoration  is  carried  out  in  two  distinct 
styles,  one  of  which  is  the  so-called  Style  of  the  Candelabrum,  (see 
Part  VI.).  From  an  inscription  in  the  house  against  a  drawing  of  a 
gladiator,  it  is  certain  that  the  decoration  of  one  of  the  rooms  is  earlier  than 
November  6,  15  a.d.  (Offiosus  fugit  VIII.  idus  nov.  Druso  Ccesare  M.  Junio 
Silano  Cos.).\ 

A  small  room,  decorated  with  Egyptian  religious  figures,  leads  into 
the  principal  atrium  of  the  house,  and  two  winter  triclinia  or  oeci  open 


Terra-cotta  Lamps  (Naples  Museum) 

directly  into  xh^  peristylium.  One  is  decorated  in  black,  while  in  the  other 
the  delicate  ornaments  are  painted  in  very  light  tones  on  white  stucco, 
contrasting  strongly  with  the  sombre  colour  of  the  first  triclinium.  At  the 
back  of  the  house  there  is  an  exedra  flanked  by  two  rooms,  and  a  summer 
triclinium  shaded  from  the  sun  by  a  high  wall  on  the  south  side.  The 
Casa  del  Centenario  is  one  of  the  houses  with  the  largest  number  of 
outlying  rooms  in  Pompei,  and  differs  from  the  other  houses  in  various 
details,  such  as  the  piscina  painted  with  fish,  the  lararium  dedicated  to 
the  vine-clad  Bacchus  (p.  1 20),  and  the  richly  decorated  venereum. 

The  suburban  house   of   Diomedes   lies   outside   the   city  walls,    and 

formed    part    of    the    Pagus    Augustus    Felix.       Its   entrance   is   in   the 

Way  of  Tombs,  and  marks  the  limit  of  the  excavations  that  have  been 

made  in  the  direction  of  Herculaneum.     From  the  street  a  flight  of  steps 

•  See  the  statue  on  p.  390,  Part  VI.  t  FiorelU's  Guidt. 


^ittammsaimaL- 


■  jniJil^tiiini.  i^>  .rni  A 


29<^ 


POMPEI  :    THE   CITY,    ITS    I.TFK    AND    ART 

leads  to  the  peristylium  (or  Corinthian  atrium), 
according  to  the  custom  mentioned  by  Vitruvius,* 
who  held  that  a  peristylium  should  take  the 
place  of  the  atrium  in  country  houses.  Beneath 
the  portico  is  a  small  /ararium,  which  enshrined 
a  statuette  of  Minerva;  to  the  right  of  the 
entrance  a  staircase  leads  to  the  offices  and  to 
the  garden  below.  This  was  surrounded  on 
three  sides  by  a  crypto-portico  supporting  the 
upper  part  of  the  building,  which  had  a  terrace. 


THE   GR.i-XO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


297 


Villa  of  Diomedes 

In  the  middle  of  the 
garden,     which     extended 
over     a     surface    of     158  ^ 
square    yards,    there    is   a 
piscina    with    a    water-jet. 
Behind  the  basin  is  a  plat- 
fonn,    raised     above    two 
steps,  from  which  rise  six    1 
columns.     They    probably 
supported    a    trellis-work.    ' 
under  which  the  table  and 
couches  were  placed. 

Among  the  many 
rooms  of  this  large  villa 
we  should  especially  notice 
one  where  two  tables  with 
three  couches  each  could 
be  placed,  and  where  the 


Crypto-portico  of  the  Villa  of  Diomcdea 


windows  opened   like   doors   to   give   the   guests  a  view   of   the   garden 
•  Vitr.  VI.  viii.    Here  we  find  the  same  confusion  between  the  atrium  and  the  peristylium. 


Cocks  of  Water-pipes 


below,  and  the  magnificent  panorama  of  the  sea,  the  coast  of  Surrentum, 
and  the  villas  lying  at  the  foot  of  Vesuvius  among  the  brilliant  vine-clad 
slopes  of  the  mountain. 

One  very  pleasant  room,  with  windows  looking  out  in  three  different 
directions,  is  semicircular  in  shape; 
Pliny  mentions  it  in  his  description  of 
his  own  villa  at  Praeneste.  Two  small 
rooms,  in  one  of  which  a  slave  probably 
slept,  are  situated  in  front  of  a  bed- 
chamber containing,  in  the  rectangular  part  of  the  room,  an  alcove  or 
soteca.  It  was  shut  off  by  curtains  hanging  from  bronze  rings,  which 
have  been  picked  up.  Against  the  wall  stands  a  small  block  of  masonry 
cased  in  marble,  on  which  phials  of  cosmetics  were  found. 

In  the  cellars  of  this  house  a  large  number  of  amphorae  were  stored 
in  the  sand,  and    the   bodies   of  eighteen   persons  were   found  who   had 

fled  there  for  safety.  When 
the  house  was  discovered  in 
1763,  the  method  of  taking 
casts  of  bodies  had  not  yet 
been  invented.  According  to 
the  contemporary  accounts  of 
the  discovery,  the  hair,  dresses, 
veils,  and  shoes  could  be  dis- 
tinguished,   for   the   fine    ashes 

Casa  di  Castore  e  Polluce  ^  „„j 

and  water,  penetrating  into 
the  cellars,  had  made  a  mould  round  the  dead  bodies,  which  had 
remained  intact  under  the  shelter  of  the  vaults.  All  that  could  be  done 
was  to  collect  the  articles  of  value  and  jewels,  which  had  been  brought 
there  in  the  hope  of  saving  them,  together  with  provisions  to  last  for 
several  days.     Two  other  skeletons,  one  holding  a  key,*  the  other  some 

*  Page  17. 

2  P 


I  [iiTiariiiia     •  ifiiiiiiiaiitiBtiM  ■aJ 


39^ 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


I 


money,  lay  near  the  gate  at  the  end  of  the  garden,  which  led  to  some 

fields,  where  traces  of 
ancient  furrows  have  been 
found.  The  decoration  of 
the  house  dates  from  the 
time  of  the  early  Emperors, 
before  the  year  63.  The 
only  ground  for  the  name 
given  to  the  villa  is  an  in- 
scription on  a  tomb  opposite 
^^^^^^  the  entrance : 

House  of  the  Vettii 

M  •  ARRIVS  •  I  •  L  •  DIOMEDES 
SIBI    SVIS   MEMORISE 
MAGISTER   PAG  •  AVG  •  FELIC  •  SVBVRB  • 
"Marcus  Arrius  Diomedes,  freedman  of  Julia,  chief  of  the   Pagus  Augustus  Felix,  to  her 
memory,  and  to  that  of  his  own  family." 

As  the  excava- 
tions in  the  suburb 
have  not  been  con- 
tinued, the  largest 
house  discovered  in 
this  quarter  has  been 
accepted  as  the 
dwelling  of  the 
magister  pagi. 

There  are  many 
other  interesting 
houses  in  Pompei, 
such     as     the    Casa 


Atriuni  of  the  House  of  the  X'ettii  and  Stand  for  the  Strong-box 


deir  Ancora,  the   Casa  di  Castore  e  Polluct\   with    its   two   atria    united 
by  a  peristylium ;   the  house  of  Cornelius   Rufus,   where   there  is  a  fine 


THE  GR/ECO-ROMAN   HOUSE 


299 


marble   cariibulum   in   the   atrium   (see  Part  VI.) ;   the  Casa  del  Balcone, 
with  its   basin   surmounted   by   a   Cupid;    the   House  of  Jucundus,   with 


\)-?nP^  "^^^ 


Interior  of  the  Casa  del  Kalcone 


its  Egyptian  tablinum  (see  coloured  plate  No.  X.) ;  the  Casa  di  Apollo;  the 
Casa  di  Adone,  with  its  large  painting  of  the  wounded  Adonis ;  and  the 
Casa  delle  Nozze  d'Argento,  so  called  in  memory  of  the  silver  wedding  of 
the  King  and  Queen  of  Italy. 


300 


rOMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


THE   GR.*:CO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


301 


We  have  yet  to  examine  two  more  important  houses  :  the  House  of  the 
Vetiii  and  the  Casa  di  Meleagro. 

The  House  of  the  Vetiii,  which  was  discovered  in  1895,  ^^s  kept 
its  pictures  and  marbles,   in   accordance  with   the   new   system  which    is 


Viridarium  of  the  House  of  the  Veltii 

now  generally  adopted,   and  the  house  is  almost  as  it  was   left   by  the 
ancients. 

In  the  entrance  of  xh^ prothyrum  there  is  an  obscene  painting  which 
may  have  been  intended  to  ward  off  the  evil  eye ;  it  is  now  hidden  by 
a  shutter.  Its  symbolic  meaning  seems  to  be  that  the  wealth  of  the  Vettii 
was  equal  to  their  venal  amours,  for  there  is  a  pair  of  scales  in  the  picture. 
On  either  side  of  the  Tuscan  atrium  stood  a  strong-box,  the  fragments  of 
which  have  been  left  in  their  original  places  and  covered  with  a  glass  case. 
There  are  small  rooms  on  either  side  of  the  prothynwi,  their  white  walls 
decorated  with  paintings  of  The  Deserted  Ariadne,  Hero  and  Leander,  an4 


birds.  A  third  picture  is  no  longer  in  its  place,  and  nothing  remains  of 
it  but  the  iron  clamps  that  fastened  it  to  the  wall.  It  was  possibly 
removed  by  the  ancients,  or  the  picture  may  have  been  painted  on  wood 
and  have  perished.  There  is  a  similar  blank  space  on  the  wall  of  an 
exedra  in  the  same  house.  The  decoration,  for  the  most  part,  is  in  the 
latest  Pompeian  style,  and  is  still  in  good  preservation  ;  although  every 
year  the  reds,  which  were  so  brilliant  when  they 
were  first  discovered,  blacken  more  from  exposure 
to  the  air. 

The  pleasantest  part  of  the  house  is  undoubtedly 
the  viridarium,  in  the  centre  of  the  peristylium. 
The  columns  supporting  the  architecture  have  been 
partially  completed  to  support  the  roof,  which  now 
covers  the  ambulacrum  again  and  protects  the 
paintings  in  the  porticoes. 

In     the     viridarium,     where     the 
marks    of   the    old    flower-beds    have 
been    discovered,    plants    and     flowers 
grow    as    before.     Even  trails    of    ivy 
have  been  planted,  in  imitation  of  the  painted  ivy  on  the  dadoes  of  the 
peristyle.     Basins   and   fonts   of  pure   marble  are  placed  in    the  winding 
alleys   and   among   the   parterres.     Two    marble   cippi,    round   which    are 
carved  tendrils  of  bindweed,  support  each  a  double-fronted  term,  the  finer 
of  which   represents   Ariadne   and   a   bearded    Bacchus.      A    statuette   of 
an  ithyphallic  Priapus  in  the  Egyptian  style,  found  on  one  of  the  pedestals, 
is  now  locked  away  in  the  vcnerewn  of  the  Vettii,  the  walls  of  which  are 
covered  with  worthless  sketches.     The  other  bronze  and  marble  statuettes, 
representing  Bacchus  and  Silenus,  Cupids  and  putti  (children),  have  not 
been  removed  from  their  pedestals.     The  choked  leaden  pipes  have  been 
repaired,   and   on   certain   days  the   ancient  taps   and   cocks   are   opened, 
when  the  two  figures  of  Eros,  in   blue  bronze  with   silver  eyes,   let  th^ 


Lamp,  Lucerna  pensile  (Naples  Museum) 


<'^!| 


302 


rOMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


water  drip  from  the  beaks  of  the  birds  they  hold  on  their  arms.  The 
marble  basins  fill,  and  the  plash  of  the  water  gives  a  touch  of  life  to 
this  fresh  and  charming  spot  as  the  sunlight  plays  on  the  transparent 
marble  of  the  basins. 

The  paintings  in  the  House  of  the  Vetiii 
seem,  for  the  most  part,  as  fresh  as  if  they  had 
been  finished  yesterday,  and  vivid  reds  and 
deep  blacks  blend  harmoniously  in  the  half- 
light  of  the  exedra  and  the  ceci,  which  are 
painted  with  mythological  subjects.  Three  of 
these  —  Pentheus  slain  by  Bacchantes,  The 
Child  Hercules  strangling  the  Serpents,  and 
The  Punishment  of  Dirce*  —  decorate  one 
room ;  Pasiphae,  Ixion,  and  Ariadne  are  the 
chief  figures  in  other  groups. 

The  exedra,  which  lies  in  the  axis  of  the 
viridarium,  is  the  most  richly  decorated  room 
in  the  house.  It  contains  a  long  frieze,  just 
above  the  dado,  in  which  Cupids  and  Psyches 
are  busily  engaged  on  all  sorts  of  tasks,  and 
fair  white-winged  children  are  painted  in  rosy 
tints  on  a  black  ground.  The  walls  are  divided 
into  red  panels  (see  coloured  plate  No.  XI.),  in 
the  centre  of  which  are  linked  groups  of  dancers, 
surrounded  by  a  broad  black  space,  where  carefully  painted  ornaments 
of  garlands  and  foliage  are  wreathed  in  graceful  festoons  alive  with  birds,  f 
A  great  number  of  small  mythological  allegories  alternate  with  the  Cupids 

in  the  friezes. 

The  shrine  of  the  Lares  (p.  121)  stands  in  a  little  atrium  not  far  from 
the  first  atrium,  near  some  small  apartments  and  the  kitchen,  where  all  the 

■■■■  Coloured  plate  No.  VIII.  \  Coloured  plates  Nos.  V.  and  XI. 


Bronze  Lychnuchus  (Naples  Museum) 


THE   GR^:CO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


303 


utensils  have  been  left  as  they  were  found. 
A  staircase  led  to  the  small  rooms  on  the 
upper  floor,  which  opened  into  the  litde 
atrium  with  the  lararium.  The  House  of 
the  Vettii  is  a  pleasant  place  to  linger  in, 
under  the  shelter  of  the  peristylium.  Pictures 
of  ancient  life  rise  before  one  like  a  dream, 
as  one  watches  the  green  stems  of  the 
flowers  bent  by  the  wind  and  breathes  the 
scent  of  the  gardens.  In  the  soft  light  that 
filters  through  the  portico  the  rooms  look  like 
dark  hollows  which  throw  up  the  brilliant 
tones  of  the  sunlit  columns  shining  in  the 
clear  light. 

The  House  of  Meleager  (Casa  di  Mele- 
agro),  which  lies  at  the  end  of  the  Street  of 
Mercury  close  by  the  city  walls,  is  one  of  the 

most    magnificent    houses   in    Pompei.        It   dates    ""^o^^^Lamp stand.  L>chnuchus(Naples Museum) 

from  the  Samnite  period,  and  was  named  (without  much  reason)  after  a 
very    mediocre    picture    in    the  prothyrum,    representing    Meleager   and 

Atalanta.  Mercury  offering  a  Purse  to  For  tuna 
faced  it  on  the  opposite  wall.  The  Tuscan  atrium 
had  some  fine  paintings,  which  have  been  removed 
to  Naples :  Vulcan  giving  Thetis  the  Arms  of 
Achilles,  and  Paris  and  Helen.  Beneath  the  carti- 
bulum,  supported  by  griffins,  there  is  a  recess  sunk 
in  the  floor,  and  lined  with  marble,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  used  to  cool  drinks.  Owing 
to  the  nature  of  the  site,  which  was  rather  shallow. 

Bronze  CEnocha.  (Naples  Museum)      ^^^      ^^^y,^,,^     ^^„     ^J^^     J^f^     ^p^^^     direcdy      intO     the 

peristylium   by  a  large  bay,    formerly   closed  by   a   door   of  two   panels, 


304 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND  ART 


THE   GR^.CO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


.105 


each  of  which  was  double,  and  folded  back.  The  threshold,  with  its  bronze 
fastenings,  shows  the  arrangement.  This  entrance  to  the  peristylium  is 
very  rich  in  effect,  and  entertainments  were  evidently  often  given  in  this 


Bronze  CEnochre 


Bronze  Vase 
(Naples  Museum) 


Bronze  G^nocha: 


part    of   the  house.      A  portico   with    columns   of  fluted  stucco   with   red 
bases  surrounds  the  area  of  ih^  perisiyiium,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  sunk 


Lamp,  Lucema  pensile  (Naples  Museum)  Terra-cotU  Lamp  with  three  Wicki 

a  \aTgQ  piscina  like  that  in  the  Vii/a  of  Diomedes.  The  sides  of  ^\s  piscina 
are  painted  blue,  and  in  the  centre  rises  a  column  with  a  statuette,  from 
which  fell  a  stream  of  water.      On  the  side  opposite  the  uecus  there  was  a 


little  cascade  of  seven  marble  steps,  from  the  top  of  which  another  statuette 
poured  water.  In  one  corner  of  the  garden  there  is  a  large  terra-cotta  jar 
(dolium)  filled  with  lime,  probably  a  vase  in  which  a  palm-tree  was  once 
planted.* 

The  Corinthian  oecus  is  in  a  line  with  the. peristylium.  Its  columns  are 
of  the  Corinthian  order,  united  by  semicircular  arches,  and  supported  a 
terrace  which  is  no  longer  in  existence.  The  cecus  is  decorated  in  mono- 
chrome", and  painted  yellow  in  imitation  of  gilded  panelling,  for,  according 
to  Pliny,  walls  were  gilded  as  well  as  vases.  The  columns,  the  walls,  the 
fantastic  architectural  ornament  and  mythological  subjects,  are  all  carried 
out  in  yellow  caniateu.  The  dado  is  in  red  camaieu,  painted  with  figures  of 
Fauns.  The  illusion  of  a  gilded  chamber  must  have  been  complete  when 
the  (Kcus  was  illuminated  for  entertainments. 

On  the  left  side  of  the  Corinthian  cecus  there  is  a  second  and  smaller 
oscus,  opening  directly  on  to  the  peristylium,  paved  with  mosaic,  and  deco- 
rated with  brilliant  paintings  in  black,  red,  and  blue.  A  small  door  leads 
from  it  into  an  immense  winter  triclinium  lighted  by  round-headed  windows 
set  high  in  the  wall.  One  of  these  looks  into  the  smaller  cecus,  which  must 
have  been  a  room  where  the  guests  met  and  talked  before  and  after  meals 
(corresponding  to  a  "  smoking-room  "  in  a  modern  house).  From  the 
peristylium  an  arched  door  led  to  the  triclinium  with  its  black  dado  painted 
with  naiads  surrounded  by  irises.  On  the  walls  are  large  compositions, 
such  as  The  Judgment  0/  Paris,  where  Helen  gives  a  helmet  to  her  lover, 
Achilles  in  his  Tent  urged  to  fight  by  the  Greeks,  and  others.  Fourteen 
silver  table  utensils  were  found  in  the  house— two-handled  vessels  orna- 
mented with  bas-reliefs— bowls,  strainers,  &c.,  all  costly  objects  like  those 
found  at  Bosco  Reale. 

•  See  painting  in  the  Eg>'ptian  style  in  Part  VI.    Suetonius  speaks  of  a  palm  that  Augustus 
frew  in  a  compiuvium.    (Suetonius,  Aug.) 


2Q 


THE  GR^CO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


307 


II 


VII 


THE   COSTUME   OF  THE   MEN   AND  WOMEN 

COSTUME  is  the  index  of  a  period,  the  "brief  chronicle"  of  the 
times,  varying  with  varying  latitudes,  for  Africans  cannot  dress  like 
Esquimaux.  In  the  temperate  and  pleasant  climate  of  Pompei  the 
lightest  dress  was  naturally  the  most  popular,  and 
the  most  beautiful  robe  was  the  simplest,  the  one 
that  most  closely  followed  the  lines  of  the  body. 
Delicate  and  fanciful  stuffs,  draped  by  graceful 
movement,  caressed  the  body,  which,  now  veiled, 
now  hidden,  and  now  divined,  was  expressed  by  a 
fold.  Such  a  dress  could  be  thrown  aside  in  a 
moment  to  show  the  naked  beauty  of  the  form  ;  thus 
was  the  artistic  imagination  of  the  Greeks 
moved  by  the  sight  of  Phryne  when  she 
showed  herself  in  the  Areopagus  and  on  the 
beach  of  Eleusis.  The 
people  of  Pompei  had  in- 
herited the  Greek  tradition, 
the  casa  di  Trittoiemo)  and  modesty  With  them  is 

not  to  be  measured  by  our  modern  standards. 

The  cowl  does  not  make  the  monk,  and  nudity 
is   not   necessarily   immodesty.      The   nude   may 


Woman  at  her  Toilette  (Painting  in 


Box  for  Paint.  Curling  Iron 

(Na|des  Museum) 


Box  of  Faint 
(Naples  Museum) 


be  chaste,  and  dress  can  be  indecent;  all  depends  upon  the  intention. 


The  minor  details  of  the  costumes  we  have  already  noted  may  now 

give   us   a   more   definite   idea   of  the   Pompeians,   and  make 

us  better  acquainted  with  them. 

The   women    prepared    their    borrowed   charms    in  their 

dressing-rooms,    "remote    from    witnesses,"    as    Ovid    writes. 

They  did   not  wear   stays,  but  their  breasts  were  bound  by  the  fascia, 

the  face  was  painted  and  dyes  were  used,  and 
a  few  patches,  artistically  disposed,  gave  brilliance 
to  the  complexion.  The  hair  was  dressed  in  a 
variety  of  ways  and  curled  with  irons ;  it  hung 
on  the  shoulders,  or  was  bound  up  in  a  knot 
like  Diana's.  Combs  were  made  of  boxwood 
or  ivory ;  tortoiseshell  combs  were  used  as 
ornaments,  and  also  hairpins  decorated  with 
Loves,  small  Venuses,  and  birds.  Diadems  of 
pearls  and  gold  were  also  worn,  and  a  net  some- 

Woman  wearing  Wizfatcia  (fragment  of      . 

a  Painting  in  the  Casa  del  Centenario)  times  covered  the  hair.  Ear-rings  of  gold, 
pearls,  or  coral ;  a  great  variety  of  bracelets  and  necklaces,  of  filigree 
work,  leaves  of  chased  gold,  serpents  set  with  precious 
stones,  &c.,  gave  the  finishing- touch  to  the  toilette. 

The  tunic  with  small  folds  was  woven  of  silk, 
wool,  or  other  materials,  and  made  in  all  colours — 
sea-green,  azure  blue,  saffron  yellow,  carnation,  and 
purple.  But  the  poet  of  the  Art  of  Love  warns  women 
that  the  same  colours  are  not  becoming  to  every  one, 
and  that  women  of  taste  are  known  by  the  harmonious 
colours  of  the  stuffs  they  wear. 

The  tunic  was  cut  out  at  the  top,  showing  the 
neck  and  shoulders  and  the  upper  part  of  the  breast. 
Long  robes  trailing  on  the  ground  were  worn,  more  '^°"^^Maium)^^^*" 

especially    by   women   of  rank   and    fashion.      The   patagiata,    or    tunic 


•2i^ 


ll>  —IwllliBii 


3o8 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


brocaded  with  flowers  and  gold,  was  worn  by  young  women  and 
girls ;  the  costume  was  completed  by  the  chlamys,  which  was 
fastened  in  front  or  on  the  shoulder  by  a  cameo  or  a  golden  brooch. 
The  peplos  or  himation  was  often  bordered  by  a  pattern,  and 
women  draped  themselves  entirely  in  it  when  they  went  out. 
Married  women  sometimes  also  wore  a  transparent  veil.      Shoes 

were  made  of  various  colours  and 
materials ;  some  of  those  found  in 
Pompei  are  made  of  grass  fibre 
{baxed),   but    the  favourite  colour  for 

slippers  was    white,  according  to   Mar- 
ivory  Pin  and  Hair  Comb(Napl«  Museum)  tial.       Thus    attired,    and    carrying    a 

ffagellum,  the  women  of  Pompei  were  dressed  and  ready  to  enter  their 

litters. 

If  the  women  of 

the  ancient  world  used 

every  art  to  add  to  their 

charms,    there   were 

many   young    men    at 

Pompei  who  outdid 

them     in     effeminacy. 

They  often   wore   the 

y^Wow crocota,  the  dress 

of  the  women.     Their 

hair  shone,  they  were 

bathed  in  perfumes  and 

dressed  in  purple  ;  they  CoId  Omamcn.s  (Naples  Museum) 

affected  a  languid  air,  walked  with  their  chests  well  forward,  and  had  all  the 
hair  removed  from  their  legs.* 

The  laticlavus  or  angusticlavus,  a  tunic  hanging  loosely  over  the  girdle, 

♦  Martial. 


THE  GRiECO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


309 


and  reaching  only  to  the  knee,  was  a  very  useful  dress.     There  were  two 
parallel  scarlet  stripes  on  the  back  and  front,  which  may  be  seen  in  several 


Bronze  Candlestick  (Naples  Museum)  Woman  wiih  a  Veil  (Painting  in  ihe  House  of  Lucretius) 

of  our  illustrations.*     The  laticlavus,  worn  by  men  of  higher  rank,  differed 
from  the  angusticlavus  only  in  having  a  broader  scarlet  stripe. 

The  full  and  heavy  toga  was  too  cumbrous 
for  ordinary  use,  and  the  lacerna,  a  smaller 
form  of  the  toga,  often  replaced  it.  The 
pallium,  which  corresponded  to  the  himation 
of  the  women,  was  very  popular,  and  was  some- 
times worn  as  the  only  garment.  In  a  terra- 
cotta    statue    in     Part    VI.     the    drapery     of     the  ivory  Comb  (Naples  Museum) 

pallium   shows   off  to   perfection    the  graceful   figure  of  the  ephebus  who 
wears  it. 

Woollen  garments  must  have  been  largely  worn  in  Pompei,  for  the 
fullers,  who  cleaned  them,  were  very  numerous,  and  formed  a  prosperous 
guild. 

'^  Sometimes  these  bands  were  blue. 


■•I 


P 


fl 


VIII 


FOOD   AND   MEALS 


IN  the  kitchens  of  Pompei  the  food  was  cooked,  under  the  protection 
of  the  goddess  Fornax,  in  saucepans  and  stewpans  over  a  slow  fire, 

or  on  gridirons.  Eggs  were  placed  in  a  dish  especially  made  for 
them.  The  pies  browned  in  the  oven  were  made  in  a  variety  of  picturesque 
shapes,  as  we  know  from  the  moulds  of  pigs  and  hares  and  a  chicken  that 
have  been  found  in  the  city.  Shells  were  also  frequently  imitated  in  pastry, 
which  reminds  us  that  real  shells  were  the  first  moulds. 

A  large  quantity  of  provisions  have  been  found  in  the  city,  and  are  now 
shown  under  glass  cases  in  the  museums  of  Naples  and  Pompei.  There 
are  small  beans,  corn,  olives,  raspberries,  figs,  dates,  walnuts,  eggs,  hazel- 
nuts, loaves,  a  biscuit  in  the  shape  of  a  ring  (the  Neapolitan  tarallo),  grapes, 
pears,  plums,  kidney-beans,  almonds,  onions,  the  remains  of  fish,  pastry, 
chicken- bones,  olives  in  glass  amphorce  filled  with  oil,  meat  in  a  bronze 
saucepan,  honey  (.>),  and  caviare.  Rushes  for  casing  bottles  (like  the 
\\3X\^x\  fiasco),  snail-shells,  oysters,  and  other  shell-fish  were  also  discovered. 
Amphone,  inscribed  with  the  word  Mulsum  (wine  mixed  with  honey),  have 
been  preserved.  A  liquid,  which  was  no  doubt  delicious,  is  labelled 
Liquamen  optimum  on  the  vessel  containing  it,  but  its  exact  nature  is  not 
known.  Perhaps  it  was  the  best  quality  of  garum*  for  garum  was  also 
called  liquamenA 

•  Garum  was  a  highly- seasoned  fish  sauce. 

+  Martial  gives  a  "  menu  "  of  his  own  composition  :  •'  Without  forgetting  the  herb  which  spurs 
to  love,  there  will  be  shoes  of  egg  round  a  dish  of  eels  larJed  with  ruj.  and  the  teats  of  a  sow 


THE   GR^CO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


3" 


Before  a  dinner  the  couches  were  set   ready  in   the   cecus   reserved 


Bron«  Kettle  (Naples  Moscun.)         Bronze  Stove  with  a  Reservoir  for  Hot  Water,  and  a  Bain-Marie  (Naples  Museum) 

for  entertainments,    and   the   table   was   loaded    with   silver    plate.      The 


Moulds  for  Pastry  (Naples  Museum) 


master  of   the   house    offered   a   libation   to   the    gods   before    the    meal 

sprinkled  with  the  brine  from  a  tunny-but  they  are  only  to  whet  the  appetite.     Next  comes  a  kid 
which  ,s  a  course  by  itself,  and  savoury  stews  that  require  no  carver,  beans,  and  dwarf  cabbages,' 
a  chicken  and  a  ham.     For  dessert,  fruit  and  Nomentanum  wine."     (The  ancients  began  their 
dmner  with  eggs  and  finished  with  fniit.) 


>       t 


i 


\\f 


3it 


POMPEI.   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


If 


began,    and   during    the   dinner    the   guests   reclined   on   one    elbow   and 
watched  the  buffooneries  of  dwarfs,  who  played  the  part  of  jesters.* 


Bacchic  Dance  ( Painting  in  ihe 
Casa  del  Centenario) 


/ 

Canephoroj  Dancing-girl 

(Paintings  in  the  Naples  Museum) 


In   earlier   times   men   ate   their   meals   reclining,    while   the   women 


Rhyton  (Naples  Nfuseum)  A  Meal.     A  Painting  from  Herculaneuni  (Naplrs  Museum) 

sat ;  but  in  the  later  period,  when  manners  became  laxer,  men  and  women 
reclined  on  the  same  couch,  as  shown  in  several  paintings,  among  others  in 
three  small  and  very  mediocre  subjects  found  in  a  dining-room.     The  first 

*  Valerius  Maximus  II.  i. 


THE   GR^CO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


313 


of    these    represents   the   meal 

itself.     The  table  is  surrounded 

by  couches,  and  the  guests  are     ^^clm^o9lJ^^>2J^v 

on   extremely   intimate    terms :     ^^ 

some   are   embracing,  and  one    ^'% 

woman  holds  up  a  rhyton  and 

pours    out    a   stream   of   wine.       ,    ri 

Above  is  written  :  "  Facitis  vobis 

suaviter  —  ego  canto  —  est  ita  \  _ 

valcas^     The  central  person  is 


'Il'l 


^ 


Symposium  (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

The  third  picture  illustrates 
the  end  of  the  symposium,*  when 
the  table  is  removed,  and  the 
guests  are  the  worse  for  wine. 
One  drunken  man  is  propped 
up  by  a  slave ;  another  is  having 
his  shoes  put  on,  while  a  cup- 
bearer offers  him  yet  another 
cup  of  wine. 


Symposium  (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

singing,  while  the  rest  are 
enjoying  themselves. 

In  the  second  picture, 
which  is  in  very  bad  pre- 
servation, a  naked  woman 
dances  before  the  guests  to 
the  sound  of  flutes  played 
by  tibicenes  seated  on  the 
floor.  Wine  flows  freely, 
and  one  of  the  guests  claps 
his  hands. 


Symposium  (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum) 


*  Symposium — ix.  "  drinking-entertainment." 


2  R 


314 


!| 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


Kitchen  Utensils 
Dish  for  Eggs.  Moulds  for  Pastry,  Spoons,  Strainers,  Knives,  Fire-<Iog,  Saucepan,  Kettle  (Naples  Museum) 


THE   GR^XO-ROMAN    HOUSE 


315 


At  the  end  of  the  feast  vessels  ornamented  with  skeletons  were  passed 


Dancers  (Painting  in  the  House  of  Holconius) 

from  hand  to  hand  among  the  guests,  to  remind  them  to  enjoytlife,  since 

they    know   not    what    the    morrow  might 

bring.     Many  of  the  Pompeian  triclinia  have 

mosaics,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  skeleton 

or  a  skull,  to  suggest  the  same  idea.* 

Many  paintings  in  Pompei  represent 
dancers  in  various  postures,  waving  scarves, 
or  thyrsi  wreathed  with  flowers,  or  carrying 
cistcB  (caskets)  or  oenochoce.  One  is  a  group 
of  two  women  dancing,  wearing  robes  as 
transparent  "  as  if  they  were  woven  of  air " 
—the  'Uoa  vestisr  Other  dancers  enact  the  mysteries  of  Bacchus,  with 
straining  breast  and  head  thrown  back,  as  though  faint  with  ecstasy  from 
the  ardour  of  the  god. 

*•  An  epigram  in  the  Anthology  explains  the  meaning  and  the  moral  of  these  representations  of 
Death  :  "  Ay,  this  is  life,  and  'tis  nought  but  pleasure.  Throw  aside  all  care  !  The  life  of  man  is 
so  short !  Bring  wine  at  once,  and  dancers  and  crowns  of  flowers,  and  women !  Let  us  enjoy 
today,  for  who  can  coimt  on  the  morrow  ?  " 


Silver  Vase  (Treasure  from  Bosco  Reale) 
(The  Louvre) 


/I 


\ 


316 


POMPEI:   THE  CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


Dances,  varied  by  amorous  embraces,  were  also  performed  by  the 
jjuests  themselves;  and  Horace*  upbraids  the  Romans  in  this  connection 
as  follows  :  *' The  young  girl  joys  to  learn  the  voluptuous  dances  of  Ionia, 
she  bends  her  supple  limbs  in  the  dance,  and  from  her  earliest  years 
dreams  of  forbidden  loves,  "t 

Certainly  Pompeian  manners  were  not  rigid,  and  youth  must  have 
been  precocious  under  the  r<r^/j  of  Venus  Physica. 

*  Horace,  Ode  III.  4. 

\  There  were  also  dancing-schools,  and  Macrobius  says  that  he  saw  boys  and  girls  performing 
obscene  dances  in  these  places. 


PART    VI 


THE  ARTS 


."^  » 


ARCHITECTURE 


I 


M 


THE  ORDERS-COLUMNS  AND  CAPITALS-VAULTS  AND   BUILDING 

MATERIALS 

LET  US  take  a  rapid  survey  of  the  different  periods,  from  the  Greek 
epoch  to  the  last  days  of  Pompei.  It  will  suffice  to  examine  the 
columns  and  capitals,  which  are  still  in  excellent  preservation. 
The  ancient  Greek  Doric  is  represented  in  the  first  place  by  the 
remains  of  the  old  Greek  temple,  known  as  the  Temple  of  Hercules 
(sixth  or  fifth  century  B.C.).  The  few 
capitals  that  rest  on  the  floor  of  the 
cella  resemble  those  of  Paistum  (see 
p.  64).  They  were  covered  with  a  layer 
of  stucco,  applied  in  order  to  fill  up  the 
pores  of  the  tufa,  of  which  both  capitals 
and  shafts  were  made.     These  columns  Tufa  capital  in  the  Basilica 

were  of  the  Samnite  period  (Greek  Doric  or  Ionic).  The  capitals  were 
no  doubt  polychrome,  for  the  terra-cotta  gargoyles  of  this  temple  show 
traces  of  colour. 

The  colonnade  of  the  Triangular  Forum  is  also  of  the  Greek  Doric 
order,  but  the  columns  are  small.  Next  come  the  peristyle  of  \ki^ paUsstra, 
the  columns  of  which  are  more  slender  and  have  no  bases,  and  the  columns 
of  the  gladiatorial  barracks,  which  are  also  of  tufa  overlaid  with  stucco. 
The  capitals  were  polychrome,  and  the  shafts,  painted  red  at  their  bases, 
were   originally   fluted,    but   were   filled   in    at    a    later   period.     This,  as 


320 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    LITS   IFE   AND   ART 


V 


we  know,  was  a  modification  undergone  by  many  ancient  fluted 
columns. 

The  columns  of  the  civil  Forum,  originally  of  tufa  and  of  the  Greek 

--^     Doric  order,  were  replaced  after  the  year  63 
J    along  one  whole  side  by  unfluted  travertine 
columns  of  the  Roman  Doric  order. 

The  Ionic  order  at   Pompei  must  have 
been  used  towards  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
century  B.C.,  and  the  capitals  have  much  in 
common    with   those   of  the   monuments   of 
Marble  Capital  Asia    Minor    and    of    Sicily.      The    slender 

columns,  with  narrow  flutings  rest   on  j4///c  bases— bases,  that  is  to  say, 
formed  of  a   torus   next   to   the   ground,  two 
fillets,  and  a  scotia  surmounted  by  a  narrower 
torus. 

Save  in  the  case  of  the  interior  colonnade 
of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter,  the  Ionic  capitals 
of  Pompei  are  alike  on  all  four  sides,  and,  as 
a  rule,   were  faced    with  stucco  and  coloured.  Marble  capital 

The  white  ovoloes  were  relieved  against  a  red  or  yellow  ground,  above 
which   was  painted   a    blue   fillet,   which  often    took  the  proportions  of  a 

large   ring.      Below  the   ovolo  two  red   bands    or 
fillets  encircled  the  upper  part  of  the  column. 

The  Corinthian  order  was  often  employed  at 
Pompei,  and  is  to  be  seen  in  the  temples  and  in 
certain  private  houses,  as,  for  example,  the  Case  del 
Fatino,   (telle  Nozze  d'Argento,  and  di  Meleagro. 
Marble  Capital  There  werc  also   capitals   with   figures   of  a   pro- 

nounced Etruscan  type,  like  those  in  the  Temple  of  Zeus  Meilichios,  the 
most  archaic  sanctuary  of  Pompei,  and  those  in  a  house  called  therefrom 
the    Casa    del    Capitelli  fignrati.      Then    there    were   others   placed    on 


THE   ARTS 


l^^f^ 


pilasters  in  angles,  carved  with  sirens  and  chimairas.     Several  capitals  recall 
the  models  of  Eleusis  and  Pergamum,  and  of  the  Augusteum  of  Ancyra. 

The  fancy  capitals  haVe  nearly  all 
the  elements  of  the  Corinthian  order, 
as  have  also  those  of  white  or  poly- 
chrome stucco  with  the  acanthus  leaf. 
But  in  stucco  it  was  not  possible  to  give 
much-  relief  to  the  small  ribs  and 
volutes  ;  these  capitals,  therefore,  are  not 
very  complicated  in  design,  though  colour 

gave  them  a  gay  and  pleasing  appear-  Marble  capital 

ance.     The  intrinsic  interest  of  the  numerous  stucco  capitals  is  not  very 

great,  but  they  give  us 
yet  another  opportunity  of 
noting  the  manifestation 
of  Egyptian  influence.  A 
typical  example  of  this 
influence  is  to  be  found  in 
the  colonnade  of  th&palces- 
Marbie  Capital  Ira  of  the  Stabian  Thermae. 

The  configuration  of  the  column  and  the 
red,  blue,  and  yellow  ornament  of  the  white 
stucco  capital  certainly  betray  the  spirit  of 
Alexandria. 

There  is  yet  another  category  of 
columns  of  the  Roman  Doric  order  made 
of  brick  coated  with  stucco,  and  either 
fluted  or  plain ;  these  are  more  frequent 
than    any  others   at    Pompei.      This   style  Marble  capital 

was  inexpensive ;   the  capitals  are  simple  ;  they  have  red  and  blue  fillets, 
and  the  upper  part  of  the  column  is  ornamented  with  a  band  of  red.     This 


2  s 


IM 


$22 


rOMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND    ART 


colour  is  nearly  always  repeated  on  the   base,  covering  about  a  third   of 
its  height. 

Finally,  there  are  a  few  specimens  of  pentagonal  columns  which 
apparently  date  from  the  period  of  the  first  Emperors,  for  the  decoration 
on  them  is  that  in  vogue  at  that  period. 

As  to  the  round-headed  arch,  it  is  rarely  used  in  the  temples  save 

in  a  few  apses  and  in  monuments  of  the  latest 
period,  such  as  the  Temple  of  Fortune,  the  Curia, 
the  Temple  of  Vespasian,  the  Building  of  Euma- 
chia.  the  baths,  the  theatres,  and  the  amphi- 
theatre ;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  very  frequent  in 
the  parts  of  the  town  overlooking  the  valley  of 

I  II      ^^^  Sarnus,    where   wealthy    Romans   spent   the 

i      .  I      summer   season.      In    the   interior   of  the   town, 

A  too,  we  find  a  large  number  of  vaulted  rooms,  and 

Stucco  Capital  in  the  Egyptian  Style  evcn  an  arcaded  peristyle  in  a  house  of  the  yico 
di  Tesmo;  but  the  round  arch  existed  at  Pompei  before  the  Roman 
occupation,  and  certain  rooms  of  the  Oscan  period  have  ribbed  vaults. 

■  The  triumphal  arches  of  the  Forum  and  of  the  Gate  of  Herculaneum 
are  Roman  works,  built  in  honour  of  the  Emperors;  but  the  Gates  of 
Stabiae,  of  the  Seashore,  and  of  Nola  appear  to  be  of  Samnite  foundation. 
They  were  restored  under  the  Romans,  together  with  the  towers  of  the 
ramparts. 

It  may  be  useful  to  note  that  most  of  the  Pompeian  buildings  are  in 
optis  incertum,  with  certain  portions  in  opus  reticuiatum.  The  materials 
used  were  brick,  volcanic  and  ferruginous  scorice,  and  the  fine,  compact 
pumice-stone,  black  or  grey,  known  to  Vitruvius,  to  which  Mazois  gives 
the  name  of  pumex  pompeianus. 

Tufa,  lava  with  black  specks,  and  piperno  were  also  used  at  Pompei 
for  the  principal  walls,  especially  in  the  eariier  period.  Certain  houses  built 
with  these  materials  still  give  to  the  streets  in  which  they  are  found  much 


THE  ARTS 


323 


the  aspect  they  must  have  had  before  the  year  63.  Travertine,  another 
material  used,  was  employed  more  especially  under  the  Romans  for  the 
reconstruction  of  the  F"orum. 

Marble  was  used  to  face  certain  buildings 
of  the  latest  period,  and  also  served  for 
Corinthian  capitals,  for  the  bases  of  statues, 
and  for  many  of  the  mosaic  pavements.  Iron 
seems  certainly  to  have  been  introduced  in 
some  buildings,  for  Orelli  gives  a  Roman 
inscription  in  which  mention  is  made  of  a 
vaulted  roof  of  iron  and  glass,  concammeratio  5 
ferrea  et  vitrea. 

As  to  the  mortar  of  the  Pompeians, 
connoisseurs  assure  us  that  it  had  not  the 
durable  qualities  of  that  which  has  so 
triumphantly  stood  the  test  of  centuries  in 
the  great  Roman  monuments.    It  has  suffered  opus  Reticuiatum 

from  the  action  of  the  hot  ashes  and  of  entombment ;  on  the  other  hand, 
the  vaulted  portions  and  the  stucco  facings  have  neariy  all  withstood 
innumerable  vicissitudes. 


I 


X 


Vt    f 


n 


PAINTING 


MURAL   DECORATION— THE   FOUR   PERIODS:    PREROMAN   STYLE,   STYLE 

OF  THE   REPUBLIC,   STYLE  OF  THE   FIRST   EMPERORS,   STYLE  OF 

THE   LAST   PERIOD— THE  CANDELABRUM   VARIETY— THE 

EGYPTIAN   VARIETY— ASIATIC   INFLUENCE 

WE  may  begin  our  study  of  the  various  styles  of  painting  with  the 
decoration  of  the  rooms  themselves.  These  afford  the  most 
precious  indications  of  the  development  of  decorative  art  from  the 
Samnite  period  onwards,  for  the  Greek,  the  Alexandrian,  and  the  Roman 
taste  prevailed  in  turn.  Although  in  a  general  way  the  Pompeian  style  has 
become  familiar  to  us  in  its  gamut  of  colour,  it  embraces  varieties  of  orna- 
mentation as  distinct  one  from  another  as  the  several  French  styles. 

The  German  Professor,  August  Mau,  with  that  conscientious  precision 
which  his  profound  knowledge  of  Pompei  ensures,  has  classified  the 
decorative  art  of  Pompei  in  four  epochs,  represented  by  as  many  styles.* 

First  Style. — The  Pre- Roman  or  Gra.'co- Samnite  period  (.second 
century  .>  to  the  year  So  u.c.)  is  represented  by  the  so-called  Incrustation 
Style,  characterised  by  the  imitation  of  marble  in  polychrome  stucco,  the 
colours  being  ingrained  in  the  stucco  plaster. 

Rectangles  made  in  this  manner  reproduce  in  relief  the  carved 
ornament  of  dressed  stone  walls,  and  pilasters  were  added  in  the  stucco  to 

•    Ctschichte  der  decoraliven  WandmaUni  tn  Pomptji,  with  a  map  and  coloured  plates. 


, 


THE  ARTS 


325 


break  the  monotony  of  wide  surfaces.  Denticulated  cornices  run  parallel 
with  the  friezes,  and  large  plain  panels  are  subdivided  into  smaller  panels, 
always  in  relief.  Yellow,  pink,  and  green  are  the  dominant  colours  in  these 
imitation  marbles,  com- 
bined with  a  great  variety 
of  other  tints  in  the  vein- 
ings.  The  principal  panels 
are  generally  black,  and 
the  white  cornices  often 
rest  on  a  blue  fillet  (see 
coloured  plate  No.  IX.  i). 
The  colours  used  in  this 
type  of  decoration  seem 
to  have  been  applied  on 
the  wet  plaster  :  a  frcsca. 
Figure-painting  was  not 
introduced  in  rooms  de- 
corated in  this  style,  but 
mosaic  was  lavishly  used 
for  the  flooring  of  houses 
of  this  period  — e.g.  the 
House  of  the  Faun,  the 
House  of  Sallust,  &c. 

Second  Style. — This 
style,  less  general  at 
Pompei  than  at  Rome, 
flourished  under  the  Republic.  It  was  based  on  the  first  manner, 
which  it  followed  as  regards  the  division  of  the  panels,  but  both 
these  themselves  and  the  architectonic  details  in  relief  disappear  to 
make  way  for  painted  simulacra.  It  was  a  more  acute  development 
of  the  system  of  illusory  decoration  ;  for  whereas  the  First  Style  imitated 


Dcconition  :  Third  Style,  Black  Dado  ;  Red  Panels ;  White,  Red  and 
Black  Frieze  (Region  IX.  Insula  VII.) 


i*. 


II 


ll 


3*6 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


coloured  marble  in  reliefs  of  stucco,  the  Second  Style  imitated  these  reliefs 
in  their  turn. 

Attempts  were  now  made  with  occasional  lines  in  perspective  to  give 
relief  to  simulated  projections,  which  received  touches  of  light  colour. 
Shadows,  timidly  applied  at  first,  help  to  produce  the  effect  of  solid  orna- 
mentation. Cornices  in  relief  were,  however,  retained ;  but  they  project 
less,  and  are  placed  higher,  at  tiie  spring  of  the  arch.  Decorated  with 
motives  in  polychrome,  they  continue  to  be  employed. 

Panels  are  divided  by  simulated  painted  columns.  Ionic  or  Corinthian, 
supporting  a  painted  architrave ;    but,  on  the  principal  wall  of  a  room,  the 
two  central  columns  always  rest  on  a  large  base,  which  unites  them  (see 
coloured  plate   No.   IX.  2).     This  style  of  decoration  seems  to  have  been 
carried  out   in   tempera.     Towards    the   close  of  this   period    the  central 
columns  are  crowned  by  a  pediment,  and  the  space  thus  enframed  is  painted 
with  figures  and  landscapes.      Greek  and  Egyptian  motives  are  blended ; 
the  columns  are  Egyptian,  and  many  of  the  details  are  Hellenistic  ;  the  com- 
bination of  the  two  elements  is  manifest.      The  Egyptian  element  gradually 
becomes  more  pronounced,  resulting  in  a  special  variety  of  the  Third  Style. 
'    Third  SxvLE.-The  Third  Style,  or  Style  of  the  First  Emperors,  is 
characterised  by  a  system  of  delicate  and  patient  decoration,  the  small  white 
columns  of  which  have  green  shadows.     The  dadoes  are  coloured  purplish- 
brown,  with  bands  of  pale  green.     The  columns  which  support  pediments 
are  more  slender,   and  are  double ;   often,  too.  they  are  used  as  isolated 
ornaments,  and  take  the  form  of  candelabra.     This  peculiarity  is  the  note 
of  a  variety  of  the  Third  Style,  which  Professor  Mau  has  christened  the 
Style  of  the  Candelabrum ;  it  marks  the  transition  from  the  Second  to  the 
Third  Style. 

This  new  ornament  underwent  a  great  variety  of  modifications. 
Sometimes  it  is  a  simple  column  supporting  a  cantharus,  a  bird,  a  disc ; 
sometimes  it  is  an  actual  candelabrum ;  sometimes  again  it  consists  merely 
of  two  interiaced  spirals,  terminating  in  a  rosette ;    very  often  it  recalls  a 


THE   ARTS 


327 


trophy,  and  here  perhaps  we  have  its  true  origin.  Other  varieties  are 
graceful  little  columns  decorated  with  delicate  tendrils  connected  by  fillets 
and  outlined  with  foliage ;  balusters,  crowns,  rings,  and  discs  are  superposed 
and  combined,  sometimes  with  very  grace- 
ful results. 

The  candelabrum  had  also  an  Egyptian 
cast ;  the  details  were  then  symmetrically 
disposed  scales  or  leaves,  recalling  those 
of  fir-cones  or  the  trunks  of  palm-trees  ;  it 
was  even  covered  with  spines,  and  then  it 
rose  into  a  dense  pyramid  of  verdure, 
interspersed  with  ornaments  and  peopled 
by  birds.  This  candelabrum  often  retains 
its  pyramidal  shape  in  the  last  style. 

The  Egyptian  variety  of  the  Third 
Style  is  one  of  the  most  delicate  to  be 
found  in  Pompei,  very  harmonious  in 
colour,  and  rich  and  elaborate  in  ornament. 
The  little  white  columns,  the  sphinxes  and 
winged  animals  that  inhabit  the  various 
decorative  details,  the  lotus  flowers  and 
Egyptian  vases,  the  masks,  cups,  and 
trinkets  hanging  from  slender  gold  chains, 
all    arranged    with    great    taste,    give   a  nJ? 

peculiar    elegance    to    this    special    style 
(see  coloured   plate    No.  X.).     Even   the  .    . ,  .      »,  t. 

*  I  ^  Candelabrum  Motives  in  Decoration 

rectangular  lines   enframing  a   panel   are  curved   or  made   sinuous,    fore- 
shadowing the  ornamental  forms  of  later  date. 

In  this  Style  of  the  First  Emperors  we  often  see  slender  columns 
surmounted  by  little  architraves,  simulating  the  perspective  of  a  portico,  the 
base  of  which  is  unseen,  being  hidden  by  the  strongly  coloured  foreground, 


i 


v"*./\ 


t».! 


3-^S 


rOMPl-I:     IHE    CI  TV.    MS    I.IKE    AND    ART 


THE    ARTS 


329 


h 


i 


which  often  represents  a  dado  ornamented  with  mouldings  or  a  decorative 
frieze.  This  novel  arrangement  completes,  as  it  were,  the  illusory  move- 
ment in  Pompeian  decoration,  which  is  no  longer  content  with  a  few 
vanishing  lines  in  the  foreground.  These  have  been  replaced  by  archi- 
tectonic silhouettes,  melting  into  a  liglu  background,  and  giving  the  impres- 


i'\> 


M.i, 


i^— -  ^'^j   w  "vr  '■  ^.'.jjjfe^^ 


■J  r^'^ 


tEcus  with  White  Decoration  (Fourth  Style,  A.D.  63) 

sion  of  a  peristyle  seen  through  a  window  ;  the  air  seems  to  penetrate 
mto  a  room  thus  decorated,  extending  its  limits,  and  the  eye  seems  to 
lose  itself  in  the  spacious  distances  of  some  inner  court.  This  decorative 
system,  known  as  the  Architectural  Style,  reached  its  highest  development 
in  the  last  days  of  Pompei,  especially  in  the  years  after  63  a.d. 

Fourth  Style.— This  last  style  is  naturally  the  one  of  which  there  are 
most  specimens,  for  when  houses  were  restored  after  the  earthquake  of 
63  A.D.  they  were  decorated  in  the  taste  of  the  day.  For  this  reason  the 
last  manner  is  too  generally  accepted  as  the  sole  characteristic  Pompeian 
style.  It  is  akin  to  the  second,  inasmuch  as  it  brought  the  imitation  of 
architecture  into  favour  once  more.      But  often  at  this  period  the  decoration 


is  overloaded  with  ornament ;  the  rectangles  are  bordered  with  arabesques, 
a  sure  sign  of  the  Fourth  Style.  The  colours,  though  brilliant,  are  on  the 
whole  less  harmonious,  and  the  ornament,  though  richer,  is  less  delicate. 

The  general  efifect  is  decorative,  but  pompous  ;  it  even  becomes 
theatrical  and  meretricious 
when  baldaquins  and  cur- 
tains are  introduced  ;  the 
slender  columns,  often  over- 
numerous,  rise  as  if  made  of 
iron  or  of  reeds.  A  fantastic 
architecture  is  created,  and 
imagination  runs  riot :  ele- 
phants support  the  columns, 
horses  mount  the  pedestals, 
bulls,  tritons,  and  dragons 
crown  the  buildings ;  inco- 
herence and  extravagance 
can  go  no  farther.  But  in 
its  more  chastened  aspects 
this  style,  too,  has  its  quali- 
ties. The  distant  perspective 
of  elaborate  imaginary 
porticoes  melts  away  into 
the    soft   gradation    of  tints 

already  indicated  in  the  Second  Style.  Occasionally  (as  in  the  House 
of  the  Vettii)  it  shows  a  sense  of  decorative  arrangement  worthy  of 
the  third  period,  together  with  much  careful  detail.  We  find  figures 
silhouetted  against  simulated  bays  ;  women  and  servants  enter  through 
half-open  doors  and  come  down  flights  of  steps  bearing  ewers  and 
baskets  filled  with  fruit ;  musicians,  placed  in  the  friezes  at  the  top  of  the 
wall,    mingle   with    Fauns   and    Bacchantes   in   an    interminable    saraband 

2  T 


Decoration,  Fourth  Style  (Naples  Museum) 


\y\ii 


330 


POMPEI:    THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


beneath  airy  colonnades.  The  composition  is  always  ingenious,  and,  in 
spite  of  the  complexity  of  the  lines,  it  is  carried  out  with  such  ease,  the 
skill  of  the  artist  masks  its  faults  so  gracefully,  that,  notwithstanding  its 

I  ^      want    of    balance,    this    style,     seen 
♦      beneath  its  native  sky,  competes  not 

r  unworthily  with  its  predecessors. 
The  a:cus,  the  exedra,  the  iab- 
linum,  the  peristylium,  and  the  atrium 
were  the  parts  of  the  house  for 
which  the  best  compositions  were 
reserved. 

One  single  style  obtains  in 
certain  houses,  as  in  that  of  the  Faun, 
which  is  of  the  first  period  ;  but  in 
the  last  two  periods  this  was  by  no 
means  the  rule.  As  to  the  Egyptian 
style,  it  was  confined  to  a  single  room 
of  the  house,  bedchamber,  tablinum,  or  oecus :  for,  said  Vitruvius,  there 
should  be  an  Egyptian  room  in  every  well-arranged  house.  The  Romans 
followed  a  fashion  in  this  respect,  and  it  was  considered  in  good  taste  to 
have  an  Egyptian  room,  as  in  our  times  it  was  thought  original  to  have  a 
Japanese  or  Turkish  room. 

The  application  of  these  various  styles  results  in  the  most  unexpected 
contrasts  between  rooms  in  the  same  house.  Thus,  in  the  Casa  del 
Centenario,  we  are  struck  by  the  juxtaposition  of  two  ceci,  one  with  a 
black,  the  other  with  a  white  background.  The  latter  is  marked  by  an 
elegance  and  a  delicacy  of  detail  which  recall  the  French  art  of  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  This  is  not  surprising  when  we  remember  that 
the  successive  discoveries  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompei  between  171 1  and 
1738  had  an  influence  on  the  decorative  art  of  the  period  which  has  not 
been  sufficiently  recognised. 


Oriental  Motive  (House  of  the  Vettii) 


THE   ARTS 


331 


V  «N 


Next  we  come  on  red  and  yellow  panels  with  black  dadoes  ornamented 
with  green  plants  and  flowers  at  the  base,  as  if  the  damp  has  caused  them 
to  spring  up  from  the  mosaic  floor.  There  are  also  red  panels  enframed  in 
black,  black  or  blue  rectangles  surrounded 
by  brilliant  red ;  even  green  and  white 
walls  with  red  dadoes ;  blue  panels  with 
brown  dadoes ;  yellow  and  white,  and 
blue*and  white  walls  ;  in  fact,  there  was  no 
rule  in  this  respect ;  individual  taste  and 
preference  decided  the  matter,  especially 
in  the  last  two  periods. 

In  addition  to  the  motives  charac- 
teristically Hellenistic  and  Egyptian, 
another  influence  makes  itself  felt  at 
Pompei.  Without  pressing  the  point 
unduly,  I  would  note  the  presence  of 
Persian  or  Asiatic  feeling. 


We  read  m  Strabo    that    many    houses  Otiental  Motive  (House  of  the  Vettii) 

on  the  shores  of  the  Bay  of  Naples  were  built  on  the  model  of  the  Persian 
royal  dwellings.  As  far  as  we  know,  none  of  this  special  Oriental 
architecture  has  survived  ;  but  we  find  traces  of  the  Asiatic  spirit  in  the 
decorative  paintings  of  the  last  period. 

Without  going  back  to  remote  antiquity,  we  may  note  that  Alexander, 
in  his  victorious  progress  in  Asia,  went  as  far  as  the  Indus,  that  he 
descended  the  river  with  his  army  to  its  mouth,  and  revisited  Perse- 
polis  and  Susa,  which  he  had  conquered.  His  officers,  following  his 
example,  married  Asiatic  wives,  and  his  general  Ptolemy  afterwards 
became  the  ruler  of  Egypt.  It  was  natural,  therefore,  that  his  soldiers 
and  their  chiefs  should  have  returned  haunted  by  memories  of  the  glit- 
tering splendours  of  Asia ;  they  must  have  brought  with  them  some- 
thing of  that  exotic  taste  which    found   such    favour   in    Alexandria,    the 


332 


POMPEI:    THE    CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND    ART 


most  luxurious  city  of  its  age.  Besides,  there  were  certain  important 
towns  of  Asia  Minor  which  had  imbibed  the  art  of  Persia,  and  from 
these  something  of  its  spirit  may  have  passed  to  Pompei.  Mau  instances 
Antioch. 

This  Asiatic  element,  combined  with  that  derived  from  the  Greeks 
and  mitigated  by  that  native  to  Eg)'pt,  formed  a  new 
manner.  The  amalgam,  I  think,  produced  that  decora- 
tive Alexandrian  style  which,  interpreted  by  the  Romans* 
became  the  Augustan  style. 

Thus  on  the  walls  of  Pompei  we  may  trace— here 
perforce  summarily  — the  presence  of  certain  decorative 
details  that  are  neither  Greek  nor  Egyptian,  but  Asiatic, 
Persian,  or  Indian. 

Certain  small  paintings  of  landscapes*  depict  curious 
little  houses,  which  are  not  in  the  native  Egyptian  taste, 
and  still  less  in  the  Greek  spirit ;  I  suppose  these  buildings 
to  be  the  small  palaces  imitating  Persian  houses  mentioned 
by  Strabo.  This  echo  of  Asiatic  taste  reveals  itself 
further  in  the  over-luxuriance  of  a  decoration  already  too 
brilliant  in  colour,  and  in  the  lavish  use  of  yellows  imitating 
gold  or  gilding ;  perhaps,  also,  in  the  mosaic  columns, 
which,  though  they  reflect  Egyptian  feeling  in  the 
main,  have  a  special  touch  of  exoticism ;  the  mosaic 
fountains  betray  like  influences;  the  symphony  of  tones 
is  fantastic  but  harmonious.  Again,  in  the  decorations  of 
the  so-called  Architectural  Style,  we  often  find  columns  supported  by 
animals.  Was  not  this  a  reminiscence  of  Asia.-*  Such  motives  were 
common  to  Chaldaea,  Assyria,  and  Asia.  The  bases  of  certain  columns 
are  ornamented  with  conventionalised  palm-leaves,  spikes,  rings,  fanciful 
details  of  the  most  unexpected  kind,   recalling  certain   details  of  Indian 

=  See  Coloured  Plate  No.  III.  3,  and  the  pas.sages  dealing  with  painted  bndscapes. 


Mosaic  Column  (Naples 
Museum) 


^v 


THE   ARTS 


333 


temples,  as   do  also  the  draperies  that  hang  from   baldaquins  in  folds  of 
heavy  gold  brocade. 

All  this  Oriental  splendour  is  reproduced  with  special  fervour  by  the 
Pompeians  of  the  last  period,  whose  taste,  unchastened  though  Romanised, 
and  fascinated  by  the  false  glitter  of  opulence,  became  a  sort  of  caricature  of 
the  Alexandrian  spirit. 


ill 
I  J 


.• 


II 


f 


THE  TECHNIQUE   OF   POMPEIAN    PAINTING— ENCAUSTIC   AND   ALLIED 
PROCESSES-FRESCO   AND  TEMPERA— PREPARATION   OF  THE 

WALLS— PLASTERS 

THE  walls  of  Pompeian  dwellings,  one  of  the  chief  attractions  of  the 
ancient  city,  gay  with  the  most  brilliant  and  the  most  delicate  tints, 
have  given  rise  to  many  experiments  on  the  part  of  artists  and  men 
of  science.     The  mythological  subjects  and  ^^«r^-scenes  with  which  they 
are  decorated  have  been  exhaustively  studied  by  Herr  Helbig,  who  has 
classified  and  described  them  with  the  authority  proper  to  his  methods.* 

,     We  will  examine  the  most  curious  wall-paintings  after  a  brief  inquiry 
into  the  probable  technique  of  the  Pompeian  decorators. 

Without  pretending  to  decide  a  question  which  is  still  debated,  I  may 
be  allowed  to  give  an  opinion  based  on  experience,  after  the  numerous 
copies  I  have  made  from  the  originals.  The  earlier  labours  of  various 
chemists  and  men  of  science,  notably  the  learned  studies  of  Messrs.  Cros 
and  Henry, t  will  help  us  considerably  in  this  task. 

We  shall  have  to  deal  with  three  processes,  each  highly  esteemed  in 
its  turn :  encaustic,  fresco,  and  tempera  painting. 

I  believe  that  different  processes  were  made  use  of  at  Pompei,  accord" 

■'■'■  Two  volumes.  The  first,  with  an  atlas  of  plates  dated  1868,  is  called  Wandgtmalde  der  vom 
Vestiv  verschutUlen  Stadte  Campaniens.  The  second  (1873)  is  the  Untersuchungen  iiber  die  Campanische 
Wii  ndma/erei. 

f  L'Encaustique  et  Us  autres  Precedes  de  la  Peinture  chez  Us  Anc'tens. 


\\ 


II 


THE   TECHNIQUE  OF   POMPEIAN    PAINTING— ENCAUSTIC   AND   ALLIED 
PROCESSES-FRESCO  AND  TEMPERA— PREPARATION   OF  THE 

WALLS-PLASTERS 


THE  walls  of  Pompeian  dwellings,  one  of  the  chief  attractions  of  the 
ancient  city,  gay  with  the  most  brilliant  and  the  most  delicate  tints, 
have  given  rise  to  many  experiments  on  the  part  of  artists  and  men 
of  science.  The  mythological  subjects  and  ^^«r^-scenes  with  which  they 
are  decorated  have  been  exhaustively  studied  by  Herr  Helbig,  who  has 
classified  and  described  them  with  the  authority  proper  to  his  methods.* 

We  will  examine  the  most  curious  wall-paintings  after  a  brief  inquiry 
into  the  probable  technique  of  the  Pompeian  decorators. 

Without  pretending  to  decide  a  question  which  is  still  debated,  I  may 
be  allowed  to  give  an  opinion  based  on  experience,  after  the  numerous 
copies  I  have  made  from  the  originals.  The  earlier  labours  of  various 
chemists  and  men  of  science,  notably  the  learned  studies  of  Messrs.  Cros 
and  Henry, t  will  help  us  considerably  in  this  task. 

We  shall  have  to  deal  with  three  processes,  each  highly  esteemed  in 
its  turn :  encaustic,  fresco,  and  tempera  painting. 

I  believe  that  different  processes  were  made  use  of  at  Pompei,  accord" 

*  Two  volumes.  The  first,  with  an  atlas  of  plates  dated  1868,  is  called  M'andgemiiUe  dtr  vom 
Vesuv yerschutteten  Stadtc  Campaniens.  The  second  (1873)  is  the  Untersuchungen  titer  die  Camf>anische 
Wandma/erei. 

f  L'Encaustique  et  Us  autres  Procedes  de  la  Peinture  chez  Us  AncUns, 


m 


It   ' 


iH 


I 


T 


t  ti 


'SI    u 


•irrst 


\\- 


u 


in..  X 


THIRD    DECORATIVE    STYLE   —    egyitian  manxk 
( II  (>  I  s  i:    o  K    c  .    J  I' «:  I  >  D  I' s ) 


K 


v^ 


K 


-.  -^^sr  i._c-- -  j_. 


PL.    IX 


KIRST     DKCORATIVE     STVJ.E 

(CA8A     di;l    CI-NTAUKO) 


r 


SKCOND    DECORATIVE     STYLE 


(<;asa    dri. lr    xo/zr    i»  ah 


G  K.N  TCI  I 


./ 


H 


-•-^ 


THE  ARTS 


335 


The  Painter  (Painting  in  the 
Naples  Museuni) 


ing  to  the  place,  the  material,  and  the  dimensions 

of  the  panel  to  be  decorated. 

Let  us  first  see   what  encaustic  painting  pro- 
perly  so-called    was.     For   this    process    (that    of 

Zeuxis,  Apelles,  and  Parrhasius),  cakes  were  made 

of  wax  and  colours   of  various   shades — something 

like  our  pastels — and  placed  in  heated  palettes.     A   brush  dipped  in  the 

mixture  was  used  to  sketch  the  picture,  but  the 
^^wax,  as  it  cooled,  became  too  thick  for  delicate 
gradations  and  modelling ;  the  painter  then  had 
recourse  to  the  operation  of  kausis ;  he  went 
over  his  work  with  a  hot  iron,  causing  the 
touches  to  melt  one  into  another.  The  irons 
used  were  called  cauteres  ;  the  principal  of  these 
was  the  cestrum,  a  kind  of  toothed  spatula 
shaped  like  a  betony  leaf  {x^trrpov). 

It  is  true  that  at  Pompei  no  trace  is  to  be 

found  of  the  hot  cestrum,  which  always  leaves  a  hollow  mark,  whereas  in 

paintings   executed   entirely    with    the    brush    the   touches   are    in   relief 

Nevertheless,  encaustic  painting  must  certainly  have 

been  practised  in  Pompei,  and  if  the  works  in  this 

process  were  not  destroyed  in  the  catastrophe,  they 

must  have  been  carried  off  by  the  ancients  who  came 

back  for  the  spoils  of  their  perished  city.     In  many 

houses,  as  I  have  already  pointed  out,  there  are  spaces 

on   the   walls  where   paintings    have   been   removed,    ^^-Tl . "Tl^ 

leaving  the  iron  clamps  that  fastened  them  still  in  place.  '^ 

Preparing  the  Walls  (Painting  in 

At    all    periods    encaustic    painting    was    much         the  Naples  Museum) 
appreciated  by  the  Romans,  and  Pliny  speaks  of  various  pictures  by  great 
masters  of  the  art  for  which  connoisseurs  would  pay  their  weight  in  gold. 
Difficult  as  the  i)rocess  was,  it  had  the  advantage  of  giving  great  latitude 


Allegory  of  Painting  (Painting  from 
the  Macellum) 


336 


POMPEI:    THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


to  the  artist  in  the  completion  of  his  work.  With  the  hot  cestrum  he  could 
retouch  his  pictures  after  an  interval  of  several  years  ;  thus  Protogenes  was 
at  work  for  over  seven  years  on  his  lalysos. 

The  method  was  much  practised  in  Rome  itself,  and  Pliny  mentions 
various  artists,  one  of  them  a  woman,  Lala  of  Cyzicus,  who  painted  portraits, 
notably  of  women,  on  ivory  with  a  brush  and  the  cestrum.  At  Naples  she 
painted  "an  old  woman  in  a  large  picture,"  and  she  also  painted  her  own 
portrait  with  the  help  oi  a  mirror.  Pompei,  then,  must  have  been  familiar 
with  this  process,  which  was  not  carried  out  on  the  walls  themselves,  but  on 
ivory  tablets,  wooden  panels,  and  also  on  specially  prepared  canvases,  very 
carefully  woven,  as  Boetius  tells  us  in  the  introduction  to  his  Arithmetic. 

Such  pictures  were  framed,  as  we  see  from  their  simulated  counterparts 
in  Pompeian  decorations.  They  were  hung  on  the  walls  and  tilted  forward, 
as  in  our  own  times,  and  preserved  from  light  and  dust  by  movable  shutters 
attached  to  the  frame.  The  process  used  for  the  walls  of  Pompei  must 
have  been  one  derived  from  encaustic  proper,  in  which  the  colours  were 
applied  cold,  for  we  find  no  trace  of  the  cestrum  here,  and  the  marks  of 
the  brush  are  clearly  defined  and  freely  applied.  The  handling  indicates 
the  use  of  liquid  or  viscous  colour,  which  remained  malleable  for  a  long 
time,  as  in  tempera  or  oil-painting. 

In  the  preparation  of  colours  wax  was  used,  often  mixed  with  resins 
mingled  with  colour  in  powder,  or  in  cakes,  such  as  those  in  the  Museum  of 
Pompei,  which  were  found  in  shops  in  the  town.  With  the  colours  were 
pieces  of  pitch,  tar,  and  asphalt,  little  pots  filled  with  these  substances,  and 
a  brush.  Mortars  and  pestles  for  grinding  colours  were  also  found,  and 
Ictrge  bowls  with  lips. 

The  binding  media  generally  used  in  mural  painting  were  essential 
oils,  such  as  laurel-oil,  tar-oil  (called  piscina),  naphtha,  used  from  very 
remote  antiquity,  and  nut-oil,  the  siccative  qualities  of  which  are  extolled 
by  the  physician  Aetius,  who  describes  its  manufacture.  Colours  moistened 
with  ^gg  and  milk  were  also  used,  with  an  admixture  of  wax  and  resin,  a 


THE   ARTS 


337 


■«»!^i;y"^T3iF 


The  Woman  Artist  (Painting  in 
the  Naples  Museum) 


preparation  which  preserved  the  same  tone  after  drying  as  when  freshly 
applied.  The  sarcocolla  mentioned  by  Pliny,  as  used  to  give  a  glutinous 
consistency  to  colours,  was  also  freely  employed,  and  the  paintings  executed 
with  this  gum-resin  have  stood  in  an  extra- 
ordinary manner.  Very  often  a  coat  of  varnish 
(atramentum)  was  applied  to  paintings  to  give 
them  greater  brilliance  and  also  to  preserve 
them,*  just  as  Punic  wax  was  applied  to  marble 
statues.* 

Fresco,   properly  so-called,  was  very  little 
used  in  Pompei.     It  was  sometimes  employed 
to  sketch  out    large   compositions   on   a   white 
ground,  which  could  be  finished  off  in  tempera  or  slaked  lime.     But  this 
kind  of  painting  was  only  used  for  decorations  on  walls  with  no  admixture 
or  on  walls  coated  with  lime. 

For  painting  on  stucco,  so  much  in  vogue  at  Pompei,  a  different  system 

was  necessary.  For  this  last  method  the  walls 
were  plastered  with  three  layers  of  mortar  com- 
posed of  several  substances,  one  of  which  was 
ground  marble.  Before  the  last  application,  the 
first  two  layers  were  beaten  vigorously  to  expel  the 
damp  and  give  hardness  and  consistency.  For 
modest  houses  in  which  the  decoration  was  rudi- 
Bowi  for  Grinding  Colours  mentary  a  single  coat  sufficed,  and  this  was  covered 
with  the  fine  lime  that  is  found  in  amphorae  at  Pompei.  In  dwellings 
whf-re  the  decoration  was  to  be  on  an  expensive  scale,  the  last  layer  was 
of  fine  stucco,  polished  like  marble  by  beating  it  with  baculi  (kind  of 
wooden  pestles).  According  to  Pliny  and  Vitruvius,  when  the  wall  thus 
prepared   was    dry.    it   was    coated    over   with    Punic    wax,    melted    and 

♦  The  experiments  made  by  M.  Chevreul  and  by  the  German  painter  Ernst  Bergen  have 
proved  that  wax  was  in  use  at  Pompei. 

2U 


338 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 


/ 


mixed  with  oil.  applied  with  a  brush ;  and  to  this,  at  Pompei,  red.  yellow, 
or  black  colouring  matter  was  always  added.  Then  the  wall  was  heated  by 
means  of  a  charcoal  brazier  till  the  wax  was  slightly  melted,  to  ensure  its 
fusion.  A  wall  thus  prepared  was  ready  for  the  illuminator.  Fresco,  we 
may  be  sure,  was  not  the  method  used,  for  very  often  the  subjects  were 
executed  on  the  ground-colour  itself,  so  that  there  could  have  been 
no  working  a  fresca.  Occasionally,  too,  the  ornaments  of  black  dadoes 
were  made  in  the  original  white  stucco,  and  reserved,  as  was  done  on  vases 
with  red  figures. 

On  several  walls  to  which  a  coating  of  uniform  colour  was  applied,  a 
difference  of  level  is  perceptible  to  the  touch,  masked  by  red  or  black  fillets 
enframing  the  paintings ;  but  this  is  not  an  indication  in  favour  of  fresco,  as 
certain  authors  have  maintained.  The  painter  who  executed  the  figures 
does  not  seem  to  have  always  been  the  same  who  did  the  ornamental 
decoration.  Mythological  subjects  in  particular  were  also  painted  on  the 
easel,  and  then  fixed  into  spaces  hollowed  to  receive  them.  These  paintings, 
generally  of  small  dimensions,  are  very  carefully  executed,  and  fresco  is 
ill-suited  for  restricted  surfaces.  Again,  we  frequently  find  iron  clamps  to 
keep  the  paintings  in  place,  which  would  have  been  unnecessary  had  they 
been  painted  on  the  wall  itself  Broadly  speaking,  it  may  be  said  that 
ornamental  decorations  are  applied  to  waxed  stucco  by  means  of  gum-resin, 
naphtha,  sarcocolla,  &c.,  and  that  figure  subjects,  unless  executed  on  piaster 
already  coloured,  are  painted  in  a  method  derived  from  encaustic,  being  first 
broadly  sketched  in  with  transparent  liquid  colour  serving  as  a  preparatory 
ground,  which,  however,  may  very  well  have  been  of  the  same  substance 
as  the  after  application,  although  lighter.  A  practical  and  expeditious 
process,  easy  of  application,  and  suitable  to  every  kind  of  surface ;  one,  in 
fact,  singularly  akin  to  modern  methods. 


Ill 


COLOURS— SKETCHES— TECHNICAL  TREATMENT— PLAGIARISMS 


TH  E  colours  used  and  found  at  Pompei  in  powder  or  balls  are  the 
following :  chalk  white,  yellow  ochre,  red  ochre,  cinnabar  (known  in 
India  from  the  remotest  antiquity),  indigo,  Egyptian  blue,  known  as 
vestorien  (our  cerulean) ;  burnt  siena,  a  kind  of  purplish  earth,  a  pink  of  the 
same  kind  as  that  of  madder,  umber,  light  green,  a  neutral  tint,  flesh- colour, 
violet  and  black. 

With  this  range  of  tints,  several  of  which  were  composite,  the 
Pompeians  succeeded  in  producing  the  most  delicate  harmonies  as  well  as 
the  warmest  of  tones ;  their  painting  often  gives  the  impression  of  having 
been  executed  with  the  juices  of  grass  and  of  crushed  rose-leaves;  in 
contrast  with  effects  that  have  all  the  transparence  of  water-colour  painting, 
we  find  the  deep  golden  and  russet  tones  of  the  Venetians.  Every  kind  of 
handling  is  to  be  met  with ;  and  this  fact  is  not  without  importance,  proving 
as  it  does  the  existence  of  individual  painters,  masters  of  the  conduct  of 
their  work,  and  no  mere  servile  copyists.  No  doubt  there  were  master- 
decorators  who  had  books  of  patterns,  containing  the  principal  decorative 
motives,  which  they  must  have  combined  with  great  freedom,  for  we 
scarcely  find  two  decorations  exactly  alike,  especially  in  details  of  ornament. 
The  same  figures  are  sometimes  used,  but  always  with  variations. 

Several  of  the  ruined  surfaces  allow  us  to  see  how  the  painters  pro- 
ceeded in  painting  figures  on  a  wall.  A  few  bold  strokes  put  in  with  a 
style  hollowed  the  outline  of  the  figure.       The  lines,  when  they  were  to 


340 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE    ANP    ART 


remain  visible,  were  always  painted  red,  a  colour  harmonising  with  the 
tlesh-tints,  and  helping  to  give  that  warm  general  tone  which  characterises 
nearly  all  Pompeian  paintings. 

A  very  curious  ancient  sketch  made  on  a  wall  with  a  style,  and 
retaining  but  slight  traces  of  colour,  represents  Mercury  giving  a  purse  to 
Fortuna.  I  made  a  tracing  of  it,  which  is  here  reproduced.  The  outline  is 
hollow,  and  the  dotted  lines  show  the  extreme  limit  covered  by  the  painting 
itself  This  manner  of  sketching  with  the  style  was  only  used  for  the 
outlining  of  small  isolated  figures  and  dancers,  or  for  subjects  which  required 
no  composition  strictly  so  called. 

The  drawing  of  the  figures  is  often  mediocre,  but  the  strokes  are 
expressive,  the  handling  free  to  excess  and  extraordinarily  skilful.  This 
quality  has  hardly  been  appreciated  as  it  deserves,  as  we  may  see  by 
opening  the  most  elaborate  works  dealing  with  Pompei.  They  all  show 
the  same  desire  to  touch  up  the  ancients,  to  make  them  appear  to  better 
advantage.  The  exact  opposite  is  the  result.  Their  fire  and  originality  of 
treatment  disappear,  to  make  place  for  a  trivial  convention  well  calculated 
to  repel  would-be  students  of  the  works  of  this  period.  In  this  connection 
photography  has  been  of  the  greatest  service  by  giving  us  exact  reproduc- 
tions ;  but  it  has  this  drawback,  that  it  reproduces  everything  indiscriminately, 
confounding  the  injuries  of  a  wall  with  the  subject  painted  on  it.  It  is, 
therefore,  often  necessary  to  copy  the  Pompeian  paintings  with  all  the 
careful  sincerity  of  the  photograph.  The  heads  are  not  always  in  drawing, 
the  mouths  are  incorrect,  the  eyes  often  squint ;  but  these  defects  are  not 
very  great  in  our  eyes,  and  are  even  useful,  as  tending  to  dispel  the  too 
generally  accepted  idea  that  the  art  of  the  ancients  was  hide-bound  by 
convention. 

The  Pompeians  are  often  very  modern,  and  they  have  this  quality,  that 
their  composition  was  always  restrained  ;  they  had  a  fine  tradition ;  their  art 
represented  the  last  dying  rays  of  Greek  art,  siiedding  its  light  on  that 
epoch  of  Roman  decadence  which  Pliny  and  Petronius  so  bitterly  deplored. 


THE   ARTS 


341 


Petronius  attributed  this  decadence  to  the  love  of  money  :  "  Cease,"  he  says, 
"  to  marvel  at  the  decay  of  painting,  since  gods  and  men  take  more  pleasure 
in  the  sight  of  an  ingot  than  in  all  the  masterpieces  of  Apelles,  Phidias,  and 
all  the  maundering  Greeks,  as 
they  call  them."* 

Painters  copied  even  the 
statues,  and  "adapted"  them, 
modifying  them  in  all  sorts  of 
ways.  A  single  example  of  this 
may  suffice. 

The  action  of  the  Hercules 
with  the  Doe,  found  at  Pompei, 
is  reproduced  several  times.  We 
recognise  it  in  the  paintings  of 
the  Infant  Hercu/es  Strangling 
the  Serpents,  in  a  Pent  he  us  Killed 
by  Bacchantes,  and  in  the  mono- 
chrome from  Herculaneum,  the 
Centaur  Eurystheus,  Hippodamia 
and  Theseus.  The  legs  of  the  infant  Hercules,  of  Pentheus  and  of  Theseus, 
are  in  the  same  position  as  those  of  the  bronze.  The  upper  part  of  the 
body  is  changed,  but  the  plagiarism  is  evident. 

A  striking  example  of  an  analogy  of  interpretation  is  also  to  be  found 
in  the  Death  of  Dirce,  reproduced  in  coloured  plate  No.  VIII.,  which  in  its 
general  arrangement  recalls  the  group  known  as  the  Farnese  Bull  in  the 
Naples  Museum.  This  system  was  adopted  more  especially  at  the  last 
period,  when  polychrome  statues  were  no  doubt  copied.  Painters  could 
satisfy  luxurious  tastes  cheaply  with  clever  imitations  of  the  works  of 
Zeuxis,  Apelles,  and  Timanthes. 

If  the  Roman  painters  deserved  the  anathemas  of  Petronius  as  regards 

*  Petronius  LXXXV I II. 


Sketch  on  a  Wall  (Region  VI.  Insula  XIV.) 


342 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


great  art,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  many  of  the  small  subjects  found  at 
Pompei,  Herculaneum,  and  Stabiae  are  of  real  interest  in  their  originality  of 
composition  and  delicacy  of  characterisation.  In  certain  paintings  we  see  a 
reflection  of  the  ancient  style,  and  in  other  subjects  grace  and  nature  have 
very  happily  inspired  the  obscure  artists  of  Campania,  many  of  whom  were 
certainly  Greeks — Alexander  of  Athens,  for  instance,  and  Dioscorides  of 
Samos,  whose  works  at  Herculaneum  and  Pompei  have  come  down  to  us. 
We  will  pass  them  in  review,  and  we  shall  find,  together  with  classical 
mythologic  subjects,  many  charming  works  representing  original  Graeco- 
Roman  painting  touched  by  the  youthful  charm  of  the  Alexandrian  spirit. 


IV 


ANCIENT   PAINTINGS— EXAMPLES  OF  STYLE— GREEK   PAINTING 


THE  most  ancient  paintings  discovered  in  Southern   Italy  or  Graecia 
Magna  were  found,  not  at  Pompei,  but  at  Paestum  and  Ruvo.     They 
date  from  the  fifth  century,  and  their  technique  is  identical  with  that 
of  the  Etruscan 


■5  «-©-©? ST.lfiS 


M^  .>gf:^QLiJat°i^- 


paintings,  though 
they  have  none  of 
the  Asiatic  stamp 
of  the  latter.  These 
Italiot  frescoes 
seem  more  directly 
inspired  by  Greece 
proper,  by  vases 
and  archaic  paint- 
ings, works  of  Poly-  luUol  Paimlng  found  at  Ruvo  (Naples  Museum) 

gnotus,  who  could  not  yet  model  forms  and  give  relief  to  bodies,  though  he 
succeeded  in  rendering  the  transparence  of  tissues. 

Pompei,  which  owned  at  least  one  Greek  temple  contemporary  with 
those  of  Paestum,  must  also  have  had  paintings  of  the  same  period,  but  so 
far  no  trace  of  these  has  been  discovered.  As  the  soil  of  a  part  of 
Campania  was  covered  over  with  the  thick  stratum  of  ashes  from  Vesuvius, 
no  ancient  relics  of  the  fifth  century  b.c,  have  come  to  light  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Pompei.     As  to  the  city  itself,  it  was  so  often  partially 


344 


POMPEI:    THE    CITY.    ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 


destroyed  that  one  cannot  hope  to  find  within  its  walls  any  vestiges  of  an 
art  that  would  have  thrown  much  light  on  the   history  of   Pompei.     We 

should  perhaps  have  discovered  specimens 
of  paintings  akin  to  those  little  examples 
at  Rome,  which  came  from  the  house  on 
the  banks  of  the  Tiber  known  as  the  Far- 
nesina.  The  figures  of  these  are  soberly 
coloured  in  purple  tones,  and  are  ascribed 
to  artists  influenced  by  the  archaicists  (first 
century  B.C.). 

Painting  from  the  Farnesina  (Rome)  In  SpitC  of  these    laCUfKf,  We   find    Certain 

paintings  on  the  walls  of  Pompei  which  may  date  from  the  time  of  the 
first  Emperors,  but  they  are  few,  for  the  year  63  was  disastrous  to  Pompei. 
These  works,  however,  show  a  closer  affinity  with  Greek  art  than  those 
of  later  periods,  and  some  of  the 
figures  have  even  that  air  of 
inspiration  that  marks  the  vases 
and  bas-reliefs  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury ;  they  have  the  elegance  of 
the  Tanagra  figurines,  though 
they  are  less  supple,  and  the 
same  style  of  draperies,  but  there 
is  an  Egyptian  cast  in  the  types. 
In  these  paintings  the  women 
are  always  draped,  and  the  back- 
ground is  of  white  stucco ;   the 


/    /•  \ 


V  ^^  ^^ 

The  Judgment  of  Paris  (Painting  in  the  House  of  Holconius) 

sky  is  not  indicated  ;  the  landscape  background  is  broadly  treated  in  very 
high  tones.  The  delicate  charm  of  the  faces  is  enhanced  by  an  air  of  great 
distinction ;  the  carnations,  which  are  very  dark  in  the  male  figures,  are  painted 
in  solid  colour ;  the  drawing  is  exact,  the  folds  of  draf)ery  well  marked,  even 
perhaps  with  a  certain  dryness,  but  the  general  effect  is  noble  «ind  full  of  style. 


THE   ARTS 


345 


Blues,  violets,  and 
yellows  predominate. 
The  style  may  be  de- 
rived from  the  fashion 
set  by  the  Greek  Pasi- 
teles,  famous  under 
Caesar  for  his  terra-cotta 
sketches  (propiasjuaia) 
executed  in  the  archaic 
manner.  It  was  pro- 
bably this  style  of  paint- 
ing which  Pliny  charac- 
terises as  in  the  manner 
of  the  ancients  ;  so  that 
the  pictorial  composi- 
tions of  the  early  Em- 
pire   were    "  absolutely 

Oreek,       as     M.     Uirard  The  judgment  of  Paris  (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

maintains  in  his  interesting 
work  on  antique  painting. 

As  an  exercise  in  style, 
the  painting  we  reproduce 
in  its  Egyptian  frame  is 
very  complete  in  all  its 
details.  It  represents  The 
Judgment  of  Paris.  This 
tribute  to  Venus  was  a 
favourite    theme    with    the 

Venus  and  Urania  (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum)  artistS  of  Pomoei.       We  g'ivC 

another  rendering,  painted  in  the  last  period  of  the  city's  history.     The 
difference  in  feeling,  drawing,  and  even  in  technique  is  remarkable. 

2  X 


346 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


In  the  early  version  Paris,  the  shepherd's /t-rtV/w  in  his  hand  and  the 
Phryoian  cap  on  his  head,  has  followed  the  counsel  of  Mercury,  and  hands 

the  apple  to  Venus.  The  scene  is 
laid  in  a  sacred  enclosure,  where  are 
a  tree  and  a  column  in  honour  of 
some  divinity.  The  fij^ure  of  Paris 
is  full  of  youthful  grace.  Juno 
and  Minerva  have  their  heads 
covered ;  Venus,  the  cestiis  round 
her  hips,  holds  the  apple  in 
triumph. 

PaintinR  in  the  Naples  Museum  AnOlhcr  SubjCCt  IS  CUrioUS  :    VctlilS 

and  Urania,  or  sensual  Love,  the 
companion  of  Venus,  driven  away 
by  Urania,  the  personification  of 
pure  and  holy  Love.  The  former 
weeps  at  the  harsh  words  of  the 
latter.  Or  the  composition  may 
represent  Eros  and  Anteros  (the 
standing  Love  has  fettered  feet). 
Next  we  may  glance  at  a  figure 
from  a  subject  in  the  same  style, 
representing  a  servant  with  an 
Egyptian  profile  crouching  down 
to  take  some  jewels  from  a  casket 
for  the  adornment  of  a  Venus 
seated  on  a  throne  and  protected 
by  Mars ;  then  at  the  three  stand- 
ing     figures,      which      are       said       to  Pelws  and  hu  Daughters  (PaioUng  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

represent    Pelias    and    his    daughters,    a    simple    group    of    considerable 
character.     They  are  taken  from  a  composition  in  which  Jason  occupies 


' '^V3^msmm^^fs^ 


THE   ARTS 


347 


the  foreground   with   several  figures   smaller  than  those  of  the   principal 
group. 

A  Pan  surrounded  by  Muses,  one  of  whom  touches  a  lyre,  is  remarkable 
for  the  grace  of  the  musician,  whose  refined  silhouette  is  worthy  of  the 
Greeks.  The  Pan  himself,  in  the  form  of  a  handsome  ephebus,  very  skilfully 
modelled,  gives  ofif  the  luminous  reflections  of  a  bronze  statue. 


Pan  and  the  Muses  (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

An  Iphigenia  going  from  the  Temple  to  the  Sacrifice  is  of  the  same 
school,  though  more  artless  in  execution.  The  pensive  maiden,  decked  with 
flowers  and  jewels,  is  draped  with  great  simplicity.  Her  sober  gesture  and 
dignified  bearing  are  very  characteristic  of  the  victim  of  Diana.  Very 
simple  in  composition,  but  less  skilful  than  the  others,  this  last  subject  is 
the  work  of  an  artist  whose  science  was  hardly  equal  to  his  inspiration. 

The  actual  Sacrifice  of  Iphigenia  is  also  represented  at  Pompei.  The 
composition  is  well  known,  and  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  example  of  Pompeian 


34S 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY.   ITS   LIFE   AND    ART 


[3  paintin<r.  The  principal  arj^u- 
ment  in  support  of  this  hyjx)- 
thesis  is,  that  the  height  of  the 
figures  is  proportioned  to  their 
importance.  But  this  system 
was  not  invariably  adopted  by 
the  ancients.  At  Pompei  we 
find  it  applied  in  very  few  com- 
positions. 

In  composition  the  Pom- 
peian  painting  follows  closely 
on  the  lines  of  the  famous  work 
of  Timanthes,  who,  as  Valerius 
Maximus  tells  us,  veiled  the 
face  of  Agamemnon,  despairing 
of  adequately  rendering  his  grief. 
^^^,  But  in  execution  it  is  very 
inferior   to   the   works  just  de- 


Iljhigonia  descending  from  the  Temple  (Paining  from  the 
House  of  Jucundus.     Naples  Museum) 

firmly  modelled,  the  handling  is 
heavy,  and  the  defects  of  the 
other  paintings  are  all  accen- 
tuated here.  Iphigenia's  face 
is  commonplace  and  inexpres- 
sive. The  Pompeian  artist 
seems  to  have  attempted  to 
imitate  a  style  he  did  not  under- 
stand, which  is  not  surprising, 
for  the  composition  was  found 
in  the  House  of  the  Tragic 
Poet,  the  decorations  of  which 


scribed.      The    heads    are    less 


The  Forsaken  Ariadne  (Region  IX.  Insula  II.) 


IHE    ARTS 


349 


date  from  about  the  year  d^i-  (The  Iphigcnia  on  the  Steps  of  the  Temple 
came  from  the  tablinnvi  of  C:ecilius  Jucundus,  which  is  in  the  Egyptian 
style ;  it  is  probably  earlier  than  63.) 

The  Medaia  of  Timomachus'  famous  picture  was  treated  several  times, 
both  at  Pompei  and  Herculaneum.  The  two  examples  we  reproduce  differ 
somewhat.  The  single  figure  probably  approached  the  original  more  closely  ; 
it  may  have  formed  part  of  a  composition.     It  indicates  the  two  conflicting 


The  Sacrifice  of  Iphigcnia  (Painting  from  the  House  of  the  Tragic  Poet.     Naples  Museum) 

feelings  that  warred  in  Meda^a's  breast  more  vividly.  She  does  not  brandish 
the  blade,  but  is  about  to  raise  it;  yet  the  pose  of  the  hands  denotes 
indecision ;  the  eye  is  haggard  and  remorseful,  but  the  mouth  has  the 
bitterness  of  brooding  vengeance. 

Another  subject  often  treated  at  Pompei  in  the  archaic  style  was 
The  Forsaken  Ariadne.  Ariadne  is  represented  sometimes  from  in  front, 
sometimes  from  behind,  but  the  general  arrangement  is  much  the  same  in 
either  case.  I  n  our  reproduction  the  weeping  Ariadne  watches  the  vessel 
that  bears  away  the  faithless  Theseus ;  Cupid  weeps  by  her  side ;  but  a 


35° 


POMPEI:   THE  CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


winged  genius,  the  gcfiius  aibus  of  Horace, 
points  to  the  unseen  consoler,  Bacchus.  In 
other  pictures  the  god  and  his  attendants  are 
shown  advancing  along  the  shore  to  the  for- 
siiken    nymph.      In    their   sobriety  of  tone   and 


MeJjca  (riuatings  in  the  Naples  Muscuni) 

simplicity  of  drapery  this  painting,  and  the  Iphigenia  leaving  the  Tempk, 
recall  the  works  of  Puvis  de  Chavannes.* 

*  See  reproduction  in  colour,  Gazetk  des  Beaux  Arts,  September  i,  1896. 


LIBERTY   AND   LICENXE    IN    PAINTING— LARGE  COMPOSITIONS- 
MONOCHROMES 

THE  subjects  we  have  examined  so  far  seem  to  have  been  inspired  by 
examples  of  the  best  periods.     We  note  in  them  that  ideal  of  art 
which  distinguished  Zeuxis,  who  rendered  the  play  of  light  and 
shadow  while  carefully  preserving  s/j^/e,  a  quality  inconsistent  with  minute 
realism. 

.  To  this  probable  ideal  succeeded  that  of  Parrhasius,  who  treated  his 
works  with  great  freedom,  modifying  the  shadows  and  emphasising  the  lights. 
He  was  the  master  of  the  school  by  which  most  of  the  Pompeian  artists 
were  formed.  The  subjects  recorded  as  treated  by  this  master  must  have 
been  rendered  with  absolute  realism.  Such  were  the  Archigallus  and 
the  Atalanta  and  Meleager,  which  Tiberius  placed  in  his  bedchamber. 
Parrhasius  contributed  a  good  deal  to  the  practice  of  erotic  painting,  which, 
no  longer  symbolical,  became  merely  obscene.  Propertius  inveighs  against 
works  of  this  description  in  an  impassioned  passage.* 

Italy  boasted  another  picture  by  Parrhasius,  which  had  been  bought  or 
taken  from  the  Greeks,  and  a  Theseus.  Temples  and  palaces  were  adorned 
with  the  works  of  the  Greek  masters.  The  Helena  and  the  Marsyas  of 
Zeuxis ;  the  Bulls  of  Pausias,  the  Alexanders  of  Nicias  and  of  Apelles, 
the  Hero  of  Timanthes,  the  lalysos  of  Protogenes,  the  Battle  of  Issus  of 
Helena,    the   Dionysius  and   the   Artamenes  of  Aristides,  the  Medcra   of 

=■=  Propertius  IL,  IV. 


raaii 


I'i 


35* 


POMPEI:    THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


Timomachus,  and  a  Bacchus  and  a  Hippolytus  by  Antiphilos.  All  these 
works  were  sufficiently  famous  to  serve  as  .sources  of  inspiration  to 
Pompeian  artists,  and  hence  the  paintings  of  Pompei  are  a  reflection  of 
Greek  painting  even  at  the  latest  period,  when  the  subjects  treated  by  the 
Greeks  had  become  the  common  property  of  the  artists  of  Campania. 


Orpheus  (Painting  In  the  Ca"ia  di  Orfeo) 

In  some  large  compositions  the  figures  are  more  than  life-size.  This 
was  furnishing  decoration,  often  very  broad  and  spirited  in  treatment,  yet 
sometimes  very  compact  in  composition.  The  great  paintings  of  Hercu- 
laneum  are  characteristic  examples. 

There  is  more  nobility  in  the  Pompeian  Orpheus  playing  the  lyre, 
under  the  inspiration  of  Apollo,  and  charming  the  beasts.  This  colossal 
figure    was    reproduced    with    certain    variations    in    the    early   days    of 


THE   ARTS 


353 


Christianity,  and  Orpheus  became  the  Good  Shepherd.  Another  subject 
of  the  same  dimensions  represents  a  beautiful  languorous  youth,  well  drawn 
and  agreeably  posed,  supported  by  Venus  and  attended  by  Cupids. 

Excavations   in    Campania    have    brought    to   light,    in    addition    to 
brilliantly  coloured  paintings  such  as  these,  certain  curious  examples  known 


The  Wounded  Adonis  (Painting  in  the  Casa  di  Adone) 

as  monochromes,  which  were,  in  fact,  original  drawings  by  artists  of  repute. 
Zeuxis  executed  works  of  this  kind.  A  much  injured  design  on  marble, 
which  we  reproduce,  was  found  at  Pompei.  It  is  executed  partly  with  the 
brush  and  partly  with  a  kind  of  chalk,  much  like  modern  red  chalk.  The 
ancients,  as  we  know,  did  not  draw  exclusively  with  the  brush.  Did  not 
Apelles  sketch  the  portrait  of  Ptolemy  on  the  wall  with  a  piece  of 
charcoal  ?  * 

■■■■■  Pliny  XLV. 

2  Y 


jArfKltaAMarite; 


) 


.>54 


rOMPEI:    THE    CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND    ART 


The  Pompcian  mormchrome  represents  Niobc  and  her  Children,  The 
delicate  drawing  of  the  hands,  the  harmonious  lines  of  the  arms,  and  the 
expressive  heads  combine  to  make  it  a  document  no  less  precious  than  the 
Herculanean  monochromes,  the  most  famous  of  which  is  the  Girls  playing 
Knucklt-boncs,  signed  in  Greek  :  *' Alexander  of  Athens  made  [it]."    Above 


Niobe  aiid  her  Companions  (Monochrome  in  the  Naples  Muiicuni) 

each  player  is  inscribed  her  name  :  Hilearia,  Aglaia,  Niobe,  Latona,  and 
Phoebe.  The  graceful  attitudes  and  the  undulating  sweep  of  the  finely- 
formed  arms  make  this  perhaps  the  most  charming  of  all  the  mono- 
chromes. 

We  now  come  to  the  somewhat  theatrical  style,  in  which  lively  action 
is  represented.  Achilles  recognised  by  Ulysses  was  a  very  popular  subject 
at  Pompei.     It  was  rendered  in  mosaic  as  well  as  in  paintings. 

The    painted    composition,    though    it    has   the   accessory   figures   of 


THE  ARTS 


355 


ahta 


lrr«*ii' 


ATAAIH 


«MM 


Mm 


Lycomedes  and  Deidamia,  *?»*»*». 
seems  incomplete,  and  has 
the  appearance  of  a  frag- 
ment. In  the  mosaic, 
Ulysses  is  the  central 
figure.  His  gesture  and 
that  of  Achilles  also  are 
alike  in  both  painting 
and  mosaic.  Deidamia, 
the  secretly-wedded  wife, 
seems  terrified  at  the 
choice  made  by  Achilles, 
and  its  implied  desertion. 

The  age  of  this  mosaic 
and  its  simplicity  seem  to 

Girls  playing, Knuckle-bones  (Monochrome,  from  Herculaneum,  in  the 

Naples  Museum) 

bring  it  nearer  to  the 
original  of  Polygnotus, 
painted  in  the  Pina- 
coteca  of  the  Athenian 
Acropolis  in  the  fifth 
century.  (The  same 
subject,  treated  in  a 
manner  approaching 
more  closely  to  that 
of  the  mosaic,  is  in 
House  2  of  Region  IX. 
Insula  V.) 

Achilles  discovered  by  Ulysses  (Mosaic  in  the  Casa  di  Apollo)  Other    OaintinP^S    in 

the  same  style  are  Pentheus  killed  by  Bacchantes,  Hercules  strangling  the 
Serpents,  the  Death  of  Dirce,  &c.,   all  betraying  a  taste  for  exaggeration 


) 


356 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


and  emphasis.      The  principal  charm  of  these  later  works  lies  in  the  finely- 
modelled  forms  of  the  young  men  and  the  beautiful   nude  bodies  of  the 


Achilles  discovered  by  Ulysses  (PainUng  io  the  Naples  Mus«-uni) 

women  posed  in  attitudes  well  calculated  to  display  their  attractions. 
Mythological  subjects  had  put  on  that  light  idyllic  character  by  which 
they  were  henceforth  to  be  distinguished. 


VI 


THE  ALEXANDRIAN    SPIRIT— THE   NUDE-HERMAPHRODITES,   CUPIDS, 
AND    PSYCHES-DANCING   GROUPS— SINGLE   FIGURES— FEMININE 

BEAUTY 

THE  Pompeian  painters,  moulded  by  their  age,  often  translated  the 
sentiments  of  Ovid,  who  himself  drew  his  inspiration  from  the 
school  of  Alexandria.  Following  out  a  tendency  already  clearly 
defined,  the  author  of  the  Metamorphoses  treats  mytholog)^  in  an  anecdotic 
vein,  sympathising  both  with 
the  graces  and  the  frailties  of 
his  heroines,  which  latter,  under 
his  pen,  become  almost  charm- 
ing. His  verses,  like  those  of 
Propertius  and  Catullus,  are  in- 
stinct with  the  worship  of  woman, 
of  Venus.  The  Pompeians,  as 
we  have  seen,  were  among  the 
first  to  emphasise  this  homage. 
Petronius  in  many  respects,  as 
M.  Anatole  France  hcis  well  said, 
is  the  writer  who  gives  us  Pom- 


Mars  and  Venus  (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum) 


peian  sentiment  in  all  its  exuberance.  No  longer  do  the  painters  illustrate 
the  Iliad ;  Cupid,  Venus,  and  Bacchus  and  his  train  enact  all  their  adventures 
on  the  walls.     Io,  Danae,  Leda,  and  Europa  show  their  fair  forms  in  the 


f! 


358 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


attitudes   dear   to  the  gods,  each   accentuating   the   amorous  character  of 

ft 


The  Cortege  of  Love  ( Painting  in  the  House  of  the  Vettii) 

Jupiter.     Venus,  when  she  is  not  in  the  arms  of  Adonis,  dalh'es  with  Mars. 
In  a  decorative  panel  of  three  compartments  Venus  occupies 
the  central  niche,  her  husband  Vulcan  and  her  lover  Mars 
those  on  either  side.     The  pure  Apollo  himself  spends  his 
time  pursuing  Daphne  ;   Hercules  is  often  drunk,  and  dreams 

of  rape  ;  he  pur- 


sues Auge,  and 
is  himself  over- 
thrown by  Cu- 
pid. In  a  paint- 
ing in  the  House  of  Siricus, 
a  cloud  of  Cupids  rush  upon 
him,  jeer  at  him,  pull  his 
hair,  and  carry  off  his  club. 
He  is  tormented  like  Gulliver 
in  the  hands  of  the  Lillipu- 
tians, and  the  enthroned  gods 
of  Olympus  look  down  on  the 
scene  complaisantly,  for  Cupid 
has  conquered  the  world,  and 


Painting  in  the  House 
of  the  Vettii 


Hermaphrodite  Bacchas  (Painting  in  the  Casa  del  Centcnaiio)  j^  |qj.J   ^f  ^J|^   having  pOSSeSSed 

himself  of  all  the  weapons  of  the  gods,  as  an  epigram  in  the  Anthology 
declares.  Mythology  has  become  playful,  amusing,  worthy  of  the  witty 
and  light-hearted  Alexandrians. 

But   at   PomjXii    Bacchus  was   difficult   to   disarm.     The  weaker   his 


THE  ARTS 


359 


divine  brethren,  the  stronger  he  waxed.      He  becomes  the  accomplice   of 


i'byches  (Painuug  in  the  House  of  the  Vettii) 

Venus  and  Cupid,  but  he,  too,  is  subdued  at  last,  and  even  to  the  point 
of  losing  his  virility.     By  one  of  those  aberra- 
tions common  in  mythology,  he  had  become 
so   effeminated  that   the    Pompeian    painters 
often  represent  him  as  a  Hermaphrodite. 

M.  Reinach,*  speaking  of  the  Bros  of 
Praxiteles,  says :  "  He  is  no  more  a  Herma- 
phrodite than  Phaedra  or  Charmides ;  he  is 
fair,  with  the  dual  beauty  of  man  and  woman  ; 
a  masterpiece,  and  no  sport  of  nature.  The 
influence  of  Oriental  creeds,  at  once  gross  and 
mystic,  and  the  decay  of  manners  destroyed 
the  ideal  conception  of  Athenian  civilisation. 
The  Hermaphrodite  became,  not  the  syn- 
thesis of  two  beauties,  but  of  two  sexes." 
This  is  exactly  the  sentiment  expressed  at 
Pompei,  where  the  androgynous  Bacchus  was 
the  outcome  of  a  sated  imagination,  taking 
pleasure  in  the  equivocal  admiration  of  am- 
biguous charms,  the  two  elements  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  formula 
of  the  worship  of  Venus  phy ska  Pompeiuna :  Venus- Bacchus. 

*  See  notice  of  Plate  XIV.  in  the  NecropoU  de  Myrina. 


Hermaphrodite  (Painting  in  the 
Naples  Museum) 


""   »Jii:iiiiiiwiilMli 


36o  rOMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 

Eros  was  the  Lord  of  Pompci ;  her  walls  are  peopled  with  Cupids. 


Woman  and  Satyr  (Painting  in  the 
Naples  Museum) 


Dancing  Group  (Painting  in  the 
Naples  Museum) 


On  every  side  the  roguish  urchins  crouch  and  hide,  or  sprinjr  forth  fresh. 


Dancing  Cancphoros  (Painting  in 
the  Casa  del  Centenario) 


Dancing  Canepboros  (Painting  in 
the  Casa  del  Centenario) 


A  Dancer  (Painting  in  the 
Casa  di  Meleagro) 


plump,  and  rosy.     Their  baby-pinions  are  white,  their  hair  golden  ;  their 
companions  are  little  Psyches  with  butterfly  wings.     They  frolic  together, 


THE  ARTS 


361 


but  they  work,  too,  at  all  manner  of  trades;   they  are  shoemakers  and 
florists,  vintagers  and  fullers,  even  doctors*  (see  plate  No.  V.). 

Certain  groups  and  single  figures  of  dancers  seem  to  belong  to  the 
cycle  of  Dionysos  ;  all  his  suite  marches  by.  Bacchantes,  Fauns,  Satyrs. 
The  Three  Graces  represent  one  woman  in  three  equally  graceful  attitudes. 


A  Dancer  (Painting  in  the  N.iples  Museum) 


The  Three  Graces  (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum) 


The  small  figurines  are  no  less  elegant  and  airy  ;  they  flutter,  turn,  embrace, 
entwine,  and  even  let  themselves  be  carried  off  with  a  certain  coquetry. 
All  these  Pompeian  dancers,  swathed  in  diaphanous  veils,  sway  their 
slender  bodies  in  voluptuous  self-abandonment  Their  floating  draperies 
serve  but  to  accentuate  some  feminine  perfection,  a  rounded  breast  or 
delicately  modelled  back.  But  isolated  figures  and  heroines  of  some 
episode  have  all  the  same  amorous  complexion,  the  same  alluring  air.  The 
essence  of  Pompeian  art  was  charm. 

The  treatment  of  these  dancing  figures  is  very  interesting.     They  are 

•  Pettier,  Les  Statuettes  de  Terre  cuite. 


2Z 


I, 

U 


;) 


5 


36a 


POMPEI  :   THE   CITY,   ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


executed  with  all  the  brilliance  of  Watteau.*     The  life  and  freedom  of 
movement  are  extraordinary.     Some  are  lightly  sketched  or  thrown   on 

to  the  walls  with  a  facility  worthy 
J^F  of  Degas.  Fantin  -  Latour,  too, 
has  his  counterpart  at  Pompei, 
both  in  handling  and  in  the  sweep 
of  feminine  contours.  A  stand- 
ing Leda,  which  we  reproduce  in 
colour  (plate  No.  I.),  is  very  modern 
in  treatment.  The  brushing  is 
like  a  freely  executed  pastel.  The 
modelling  is  obtained  by  touches 

Centiur  and  Bacchante  (Piiinting  from  Cicero's  Villa,  in        jUXtapOScd  and  SUOerOOSed  diaCfOn- 
the  Naples  Museum)  "^  ^  ^      ^  ** 

ally ;  the  transition  from  golden 
light  to  transparent  shadows  by  little  hatchings  of  pink,  tawny,  greenish, 
and  red  tones,  which  blend  into  harmony  at  a  distance,  have  a  certain 
likeness  to  M.  Henri  Martin's  method. 

Movement  and  decorative  effect  could  hardly  be  carried  farther  than 
in  the  Centaur  tamed  by  a  Bacchante  reproduced  above.  The  original  is 
a  mere  sketch,  the  drawing  not  very  correct ;  but  how  charming  is  the 
composition,  in  which  energy  and  delicacy  are  combined  with  the  happiest 
result !  * 

•  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  Watteau,  Fragonard,  and  Boucher  are  the  painters,  among  the 
modems,  who  have  most  affinity  with  the  artists  of  PompeL  A  Watteau  in  the  Lacaze  collection 
at  the  Louvre  (Tlu  Judgment  of  Paris)  might  have  come  from  Pompei.  Indeed,  there  are  many 
analogies  between  the  eighteenth  century  and  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  when  a  certain 
daintiness  veiled  the  coarsest  things  with  a  vicious  charm. 


MuUilm^'vMViiiilliiiiiil'iMiy.i^^ 


VII 


ALLEGORY-GEN REPAINTINGS— ORIGINAL  PAINTING— INTERIORS 

WE    now   come    to    the    genre-paintings,     leveral    of    which     are 
allegorical   and   anecdotic. 

In  one.  Hymen  (or  Helen  and  Paris?),  the  composition  seems 
a  little  empty ;  but  this  very  sobriety 
of  design  accentuates  the  mystic 
character  of  Love,  who  appears  as 
the  master  of  the  house,  inviting  the 
pair  to  enter. 

The  well-known  Dealer  in  Cupids 
found  at  Stabiae  may  be  included  in 
the  Pompeian  gallery,  for  there  is  a 
replica  in  the  Casa  di  Arriana,  so 
much  defaced  that  it  is  barely  possible 
to  make  out  that  the  Dealer  is  a  man 
instead  of  a  woman.     The  execution 

of   this   piece  is  of   the    mOS^   summary  Hymen  (Paimlng  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

description,  though  the  numerous  copies  made  of  it  give  it  the  polish  and 
finish  of  a  miniature.  The  composition  is  dainty  and  pleasing,  a  very  poetic 
travesty  of  proxenetism. 

A  composition  of  a  very  different  character  represents  Pero  suckling 
her  aged  Father  Cymon  in  Prison,  an  episode  much  admired  by  the 
Greeks. 


I 


364 


POMPEI;    THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


With  these  two  little  subjects  we  approach  very  closely  to  original 
painting,  genre  subjects,  tavern  scenes,  interiors  and  theatrical  incidents. 


Greek  CbarityU Painting  in  the  Naples^Museum) 

The  scenes  from  the  tavern  and  the  triclinium   given  in  preceding 


The  Dealer  in  Cupids  (Painting  from  Subise  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

chapters  are  hot  all  of  pronounced  artistic  interest,  but  they  are  nevertheless 
curious  in  themselves.      Sketchily  treated  and  very  animated  in  handling, 


THE   ARTS 


365 


the  types  are  always  well  characterised,  and  the  costume  indicated  in  its 
main  features.  Our  coloured  j)late  No.  III.  gives  a  specimen  of  the  treatment 
of  these  sketches.  They 
show  certain  analogies 
with  the  works  of  a 
painter  described  by  Pliny, 
Pyreicus,  whose  speciality, 
one  much  in  favour  at  his 
time,  was  the  rendering 
of  barbers'  and  shoe- 
makers' shops,  kitchen- 
stuffs,  and  donkeys,  which 
earned  for  him  the  nick- 
name  of  Rhyparogiaphos 

(a       painter       of       common  Tht  Toilette  (Paiming  from  Herculaneum.  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

things).  But  his  works,  it  appears,  fetched  higher  prices  than  the  great 
pictures  of  his  fellow-artists. 

Finally,  we  may  note  such  graceful  genre  pictures  as  The  Toilette 
(from  Herculaneum)  and  the  Woman- Artist,  little  works  that  charm  by  the 
grace  of  the  figures  and  the  delicacy  of  the  colour. 

We  need  not  linger  over  the  theatrical  subjects,  of  which  we  have 
already  spoken.  They  have  no  special  peculiarity  of  treatment,  but  are 
always  skilful  and  expressive  in  handling. 


t  ^ 


N 


i| 


|| 


M 


VIII 


PORTRAITS 

ANY  of  the  pictures  reproduced  in  our  illustrations  are  familiar  to 
students,  but  there  is  another  class  of  paintings — the  portraits — 
which  are  comparatively  unknown.      Hitherto  the  only  example 

of  this  kind  that  has  been 
duly  appreciated  is  the 
group  of  Paquius  Proculus 
and  his  wife.  Proculus, 
whose  name  we  know  from 
an  inscription  in  his  house, 
was,  owing  to  his  great 
popularity,  raised  to  the 
rank  of  duumvir  iure  di- 
cundo.  In  his  portrait  he 
wears  the  toga  and  holds  a 
volumen  in  his  hand,  while 
his  wife  presses  a  style  to 
her  lips.  Both  the  faces, 
with    their    widely   opened 

PorUa.u  of  the  Baker  F'aquius  F.oculus  and  his  W.fc  (Naples  Mu5«un)      ^^^^     J^ave    a    Certa  in    fran  k 

and  honest  simplicity  of  expression,  and  the  vigorous  painting  and  warm 
scale  of  colour  recall  the  portraits  of  Fayoum.  Some  small  portrait-heads 
in  the  Naples  Museum  are  hung  so  high  that  they  pas«;  almost  unnoticed. 


I 


THE   ARTS 


367 


An  examination  of  the  portraits  in  the  museum  would  lead  one  to 
suppose    that     only     one 
portrait  had   come   down 
to  us,  together  with  a  few 
heads    of    secondary    in- 
terest, illustrating  certain  ( 
Pompeian     types.       This  \ 
seemed  to  me  exceedingly     \ 
improbable.      During  my        I 
first  stay  in  the  city  I  had         f 
the   pleasure   of    meeting         \ 
Mr.    Fitzgerald    Marriott, 
who   knew   Pompei   well, 

and  who  drew  up  a  list    of  Portraits  (Region  IX.  Insula  \\  No.  18) 

sixty  portraits.*     Choosing  those  that  were  least  damaged,  I  made  copies  of 
fifty  t  of  the  same  size  as  the  originals. 

The  majority  of  them  are,  naturally, 
women ;  portraits  of  men  are  not  so  com- 
mon, and  there  are  only  three  pictures  of 
children.  These  heads  are  enframed  in 
yellow,  red,  or  black  rectangular  borders, 
f\Vk>    //I  ^^li^  ^^  placed  in  medallions,   like  the  portraits 

painted  on  shields  which  Pliny  calls  clypei 
from  their  shape. 

These   portraits  may  be  divided   into 
three    classes:    family    portraits,    allegorical    portraits,     and     portraits     of 
celebrities— poets,  musicians,  or  actors.     Two  portraits,  reproduced  here, 
are  framed  in  an  Egyptian  border,  and  appear  to  date  from  the  time  of  the 

*  Mr.  Fitzgerald  Marriott  was  the  first  to  publish  an  essay  on  this  question :  "  Facts  about 
Pompei  and  Family  Portraits  at  Pompei  "  {Archaological  Journal,  March  1897). 
t  This  series  is  now  in  the  library  of  the  Ecolc  des  Beaux-Arts. 


Hortn-uts  (Paiiuiiig  in  the  Home  of  Holconius) 


V 


;  -t 


368 


POMPEI:    THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND    ART 


If  1 1 

41 


early    Emperors.       The    two    faces   have    a    certain    Greek   charm   and 

distinction.     The  woman  holding  the  red  and  wh'itQ  J/adeZ/um  wears  a  pale 

violet  hvnation,  and  her  companion,  whose 
chin  is  hidden,  is  draped  in  a  delicate  green 
mantle.  These  two  heads  are  placed  rather 
high  up  on  the  wall,  though  as  a  rule  such 
portraits  are  on  the  eye-level. 

Two  medallions  which  were  found  in 
the  same  room  represent,  one  a  brother  and 
sister  (see  plate  No.  VII.  6),  the  other  a 
betrothed  couple.  The  woman  wearing 
jewels  and  a  diadem  of  pearls,  in  plate  No. 
Portrait  (Painting.  Region  vu.  Insula  II.  No.  6)   VII.    3,    cafries   2t.  fiabellum,    has    her    hair 

carefully  arranged,  and  seems  to  be  dressed  for  some  entertainment.     The 

head  in  plate  No.  VII.  2,  with  the  dreamy  eyes  and  a  look  of  inspiration, 

has   the   distinction   of    some  eighteenth 

century  portrait  of  xh^  poudr^  period. 

The  Asiatic  head  in  plate  No.  VIII,  2, 

looks  like  a  bronze  with  a  small  pointed 

beard  ;  and    the    child  with  tangled    hair 

(plate  No.   VII.  2)  and  projecting  ears  is 

another  curious   and  constantly   recurring 

type. 

Very  different  is  the  aristocratic  head 

of  an  Ephebus  in   profile,  a   position    not 

often  found  in  Pompeian  portraits.  Another 

example,  however,  is  a   small  cameo-like 

head  of  a  woman  in  the  Naples  Museum.  ^"^'"'^ '"  "^  "°"^  "'  •"^""'" 

The  graceful  girl  with  ear-rings  and  a  gold  necklace  (plate  No.  VIII.  i) 

is   very  interesting,    and   the   face  with    its   delicate    mouth  is   attractive, 

although  the  eyes  do  not  correspond.     An  Eros  on  her  shoulder  (where  he 


.1';i>£^j 


THE   ARTS 


369 


is  placed  in  almost  all  the 
portraits  of  women)  seems  to  be 
whispering  of  love. 

In  plate  No.  VI.  3,  Love  is 
about  to  take  the  transparent 
blue  veil  from  a  languorous  young 
girl,  a  bride  for  whom  the  bride- 
groom waits. 

Next  to  these  comes  the 
class  of  portraits  inspired  by 
mythological  allegory.  The  opu- 
lent Bacchante  (plate  No.  VII.  5), 
with  her  fine  flesh-tints  and  Vene- 
tian colouring,   is   pursued   by  a 

lewd  old  Silenus — a  reminiscence  Paiming  in  the  House  of  Hoiconius 

of  the  orgies  of  Bacchic  festivals.     Another  priestess  of  Bacchus,  carrying  a 

thyrsusTmAcantharus,  charms 
and  cajoles  the  revellers  with 
her  keen  and  arch  expression 
(plate  No.  VIII.  3).  Ahead 
of  a  man  wearing  the  pileus 
surmounted  by  the  crescent 
has  the  curling  locks  of  cer- 
tain Renaissance  portraits. 
The  picture  of  the  girl  with 
her  doll  is  perhaps  intended 
for  Ariadne  and  the  infant 
lacchus.     In  another  group, 

Painting  in  the  Hoase  of  Hoiconius  a     yOUthful     Satyr     fixCS     his 

lustful  hypnotic  eyes  on  a  girl ;  both  hold  thyrsi^  and  are  ready  for  the  Bacchic 
orgies.     Another  Bacchante  has  her  hair  curiously  dressed  in  plaits. 

3A 


■^3 


K'. 


N 


Ji 


V, 


^.* 


'^^^%;^. 


370  POMPEI:   THE  CITY,   ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 

The  two  male  heads  we  reproduce  in  a  coloured  plate  look  like  the 
4t<^<^>v^  portraits    of    celebrities.       One   of 

these   persons  (plate  No.  VII.    i), 

wearing  a  full  pallium  and  a  crown 

^    of  leaves,  has  a  dignified  and  martial 

*  air,   and  might  pass   for  a  Greek 

\i    ?  philosopher,  while  the  second  por- 

—  4^   trait  (plate  No.  VII.  4)  suggests,  in 

r^      certain  details,  a  comparison  with  a 

mosaic,   representing  Virgil,    found 

in  Africa.* 

Painting  (Region  I.  Insula  II.  No.  3)  We  will    nOt  insist  tOO  Strongly 

on  this  likeness,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  man  with  the  laurel  crown  is  a 
Latin    poet,    and    that   the   bronzed 
profile  in  the  same  medallion  repre- 
sents another  Roman  poet. 

In  another  coloured  plate  (plate 
No.  VI.  i)  we  give  a  portrait  of  a 
woman  wearing  a  net  on  her  hair.  A 
replica,  now  in  the  Naples  Museum, 
was  found  at  Pompei.  The  latter,  f  4 
which  is  rather  uncertain  in  drawing, 
is  the  more  complete.  Both  hands 
are   shown :    the  left  holds  a  waxed 

tablet    and     the    right     raises   the    style  Portnut  (Painuog  m  the  Naples  Museum) 

to  the  mouth  (in  the  coloured  illustration  the  style  is  green).  These  two 
heads  possibly  represent  an  ancient  poetess,  Corinna,  or  Sappho,  the 
"Tenth  Muse,"  as  she  is  called  in  an  epigram. 

The  tibicen  with  his  severe  features  is  a  very  Oriental  type.     The 
hands  are  carefully  arranged  in  the  picture  and  artistically  cut  off  by  the 

'^'  See  Fondation  Piot,  Vol.  IV. 


M 


THE   ARTS 


371 


frame.  The  masterful  original  of  this  portrait  was,  perhaps,  some  Pompeian 
musician  ;  or  a  Marsyas  may 
be  suggested  by  the  Silenus- 
like  ears.  This  detail,  however, 
may  be  only  an  allegorical 
tribute  to  the  skill  of  the 
musician,  for  such  mythological 
allusions  are  constantly  met 
with  in  ancient  art,  where 
women  are  often  represented 
as  Venuses  with  Loves  in 
their  train.  The  idea  is  com- 
mon to  all  ages. 

The    last    in    this    series   of  Tibicen  (Painting.  Region  IX.  Insula  II.  No.  i6) 

portraits  is  a  rough  drawing  in  red  on  the  walls  of  Pompei,  of  which    I 

made  a  tracing.  It  represents  a  bull  necked 
athlete  with  a  brutal  face.  It  is  a  sketch  of  a  few 
dashing  lines,  but  full  of  truth  and  character. 

The  last  portrait 
I  shall  give  is  a  curious 
head  of  Silenus  in  the 
Museum  of  Pompei. 

■^  ^-  These       portraits 

Athlete  (Region  IX.  Insula  VI.)        show  much  Variety  of 

type,  and  are  of  great  interest  as  illustrations  to 
the  history  of  the  city.  They  show  us  the 
people  of  Pompei,  the  dainty  faces  of  the 
women,  the  strongly-marked  features  of  the 
men.  Health  and  the  "joy  of  life "  breathe 
from  them,  and   the  charming  coquetry  of  the 

Painted  Head  of  Silenus  (Museum 

women  is  gracefully  displayed.     In  the  delicate  Pompei) 


aMnBrii 


«-  —     -  _»  V    .  ■kj 


I 


t 


372 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


tints  of  their  draperies  rose-colour  is  blended  with  light  blue  and  red  with 
pale  gold.  Fair  hair,  generally  curled  or  waved,  enframes  the  soft  eyes, 
once  the  mirrors  of  the  city.  Even  now  these  classical  types  of  beauty  are 
to  be  found  among  the  girls  of  Capri  and  the  country  round  Vesuvius. 

These  portraits  have  another  very  interesting  side :  they  demonstrate 
one  aspect  of  original  painting  at  Pompei,  and  make  us  more  indulgent  to 
artists  who  drew  some  part  of  their  inspiration  from  Nature.  A  like 
concern  with  living  things  is  also  revealed  in  the  studies  of  animals  on 
the  walls,  and  of  plants  and  flowers  on  the  panels  of  rooms. 


I 


*♦ 


0 


Akuiiiiiihi^ttXMta 


PL.   XI 


>*■ 


FOURTH    DECORATIVE    STYLE 


IIOUKE      UF      THE       VETTII 


p 


IX 


STILL  LIFE— FLOWERS— PLANTS-ANIMALS— FOREIGN  SUBJECTS- 
CARICATURES— PYGMIES— LANDSCAPES 

ICTURES  of  Still  life  were  frequently  used  to  decorate  triclinia,  and 
represented  (as  in  the  paintings  of  Pyreicus  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.) 
all  varieties  of  food  and  fruits  placed  in  glass  bowls  very  skilfully 

rendered.  Pausias,  in  the  same  cen- 
tury, first  succeeded  in  rendering  the 
transparency  of  glass.  Flowers  and 
plants  were  painted  decoratively,  and  a 
single  specimen  taken  at  random  will 
illustrate  the  simple  and  ingenious 
p.-unting  of  still  Life  (Naples  Museum)  manner  in  which  the  artist  used  a  deco- 

rative  motive — a   manner   to  which  we   in   our  own  times  are  beginning 
to   return.     Foliage   is   largely  used  in 
decoration,    particularly    in    the    Third 
Style,  which  combines  all  the  qualities 
of  previous  styles.* 

Animals  are  treated  in  a  variety  of 
ways :  in  some  cases  they  are  the 
principal  subject  in  large  pieces  repre- 


^  a/ 


Painting  of  Still  Life  (Naples  Museum) 


seating   scenes  from  vcnationcs  in  the  circus,  where  bulls,  lions,  panthers, 

*  The  art  of  flower-painting  must  have  arisen  in  Asia,  where  it  has  always  been  practised 
with  great  sincerity. 


f 


374 


rOMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


and  horses  fight  and   rend   each   other.     These   pictures  are   painted   in 
light  tones  with  great  freedom  of  hand,  but,  in  spite  of  the  fairly  natural 


Decorative  Plants  (Painting  in  the  House  of  Epidus  Sabinus) 

attitudes  of  the  animals,  they  do  not  give  the  impression  of  works  of  art 
Some  of  them,   indeed,  are  more  like  the  scenes  painted  on  a  travelling 


A  Wnid  Boar  Hunt  (Painting  in  the  House  of  the  Vettii) 

circus.     When  the  painting  is  on   a   smaller   scale,  however,  the   animals 

are  often  skilfully  and  truthfully  rendered. 

In  the  House  of  the  Vettii 
there  is  a  group  of  two  dogs  and  a 
boar,  the  idea  of  which  is  taken 
from  a  similar  group^  in  bronze,  now 
in  the  Naples  Museum,  reproduced 
on  p.  390. 

The  cocks  and  hen  in  the  full- 
page  illustration  are  from  the  orna- 

CraneandSerpent  (Painting  in  the  Casadi  Adone)  ment  in    the    white  CtCUS  of  the   CttSa 

del  Centenario.  The  drawing  is  incorrect,  but  they  are  mere  sketches 
lightly  introduced  among  decorative  foliage.  In  the  Naples  Museum  and 
in  the  House  of  the  Vettii  there  is  a  collection  of  painted  animals  wherq 


THE  ARTS 


375 


^^S 


''  ^^  'i  \ 


Cocks,  Hen,  and  Fish  (Piuntings  in  the  Casa  del  Centenario) 
Dog  (Painting  in  the  Casa  di  Adone) 


.  ~^. '  ii^-rf.^. .. 


iaMjja. 


376 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


partridges  and  quails  are  cleveriy  treated.     Fishes  are  always  well  drawn, 

(.J   "v^ ^"<^  ^^ch  kind  shows  its  distinctive  charac- 

_yi|^^^.      i^5Nw         teristics. 

The  stork  and  the  serpent  from  the 
Casa  di  Adone  have  a  very  decorative 
effect,  as  have  the  ducks  and  swans,  which 
are  always  skilfully  indicated  with  a  few 
slight  touches. 

The  panel  reproduced  from  a  house  in 
the  Street  of  Nola  (Region  IX.  Insula  V.), 
is  distinctly  foreign  in  style,  and  might 
be  mistaken  for  a  Japanese  decoration. 
Paintings  of  this  class  are  of  Egyptian 
origin,  and  the  views  of  Egypt  and  the 
Nile  are  by  the  same  hand.  Two  of  our 
illustrations  are  from  paintings  in  the  same 
house,  in  which  negro  pygmies  are  repre- 
sented in  an  African  landscape.  One  is 
seen  carrying  water,  as  it  is  still  carried  in 
Africa  at   the   present  day,  and    another 


Egjptian  Landscape  (Paint'ng  in  a  House  in 
Region  IX.  Insula  v.) 


crosses  a  small  wooden 
bridge  like  those  built 
across  marshes  in  the 
East;  a  palm-tree 
grows  from  afar  on  the 
right.  But  a  crocodile 
comes  from  the  river, 
and  the  two  pygmies 
take  to  their  heels  ;  one 

climbs  a  palm-tree,  while  Egyptian  Landscape  (Painting  in  a  House  in  Region  IX.  Insula  V.) 

to  the  left  a  hippopotamus  rushes  after  some  ducks.     There  is  a  temple  by 


THE   ARTS 


377 


the  waterside,  and  in  the  distance  a  rowing-boat.     The  picture  is  full  of 
comic  exaggeration  ;   we  have   here   a   caricature,  such   as  the   Egyptian 


Parody  of  the  Judgment  of  Solomon  (Naples  Museum) 

artist   Antiphilos  brought  into  fashion  ;  it  is  touched  with  the  satire  and 
humour  of  Alexandrian  art,  qualities  even  more  marked  in   the   parodies 


Parody  of  the  Story  of  Jonah  (Painting  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

of  xh^  Judgmeni  of  Solomon  and  the  Story  of  Jonah,  where  a  l\ippopotamus 
plays  the  part  of  the  whale.     The  caricature  of  ^neas  is  a  well-known 

^^  example  of  this  manner ; 
[jf  'V  and  pygmies  fighting  with 
cranes  are  also  occasion- 
ally represented.  The 
pygmies  of  caricature  are 
always  comic  and  obscene 
figures,  heroes  of  adven- 
tures worthy  of  the  pens 
of  Petronius  or  Catullus. 
We   note    a    foreign 

Egyptian  Landscape  (Painting  in  the  Casa  di  Apollo)  element   also    in    the   Small 

landscapes  set  in  medallions  (plate   No.   III.  3),  where  Asiatic  influences 
may  perhaps  be  traced.      They  represent  a  land  of  loggias  and  terraces, 

3B 


^1 


378 


POMPEI:   THE    CIT\',    ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 


and  bushy  trees  surrounding  groups  of  small  houses  which  look  like  a  little 
village.  There  are  towers  commanding  a  wide  view  of  the  country,  and 
fantastic  roofs  surmounted  by  pinnacles  and  spires.  Many  details  of  these 
little   pictures   are   characteristic   of  the   wooden   architecture  of  the  Far 


Harbour  (Painting  in  thu  Casa  della  Piccola  Fontana) 

East,  and  the  figures  are  dashed  in  so  roughly  that  they  look  like  scare- 
crows, in  their  short  cloaks,  and  in  some  instances  recall  the  swashbucklers 
of  Callot's  etchings.     These  small  landscapes  do  not  attempt  to  reproduce 

Nature,  in  the  modem  sense ;  and 
their  intrinsic  value  and  their  execu- 
tion are  about  on  a  par  with  that  of 
the  landscapes  on  lacquered  boxes 
which  tourists  buy  at  watering-places. 
Even  in  the  best  landscapes  of 
antiquity  which  have  come  down  to  us 
— for  example,  the  painting  from  the 
Esquiline  representing  Ulysses  and  the 
Lastrygones,    in    the  museum   of  the 

Foreign  L-indscape  (Painting  in  the  Casa  del  Centenario)  Vatican the  landsCapC  is  Only  a  back- 
ground, although  the  figures  in  the  picture  are  small  in  proportion  to  the 
immense  rocks  on  the  seashore.  This  picture  might  be  classed  as  an 
example  of  the  so-called  "  Historical  "  Style.  There  is  a  specimen  of  the 
same  sort  at  Pompei,  which  we  reproduce  (plate  No.  III.  3).     The  blues 


THE  ARTS 


379 


and  violets  of  the  background  are  warm  and  harmonious  ;  some  women  and 
a  man,  very  slightly  indicated,  are  bathing  in  a  spring,  perhaps  the  Fountain 
of  Youth,  and  the  Spirit  of  the  Water  is  seen  in  the  background. 

Ancient  landscapes,  when  they  are  not  purely  imaginary,  are  the  exact 
reproduction  of  a  place,  line  for  line,  rendered  with  topographical  accuracy,  as 
in  the  photograph  of  the  present  day.  The  Alexandrian  painter  Demetrios 
was  called  "  Topographos"  and  painted  landscapes  like  those  in  the  Casa  della 
piccolo  Fontana,  where  the  "  topography  "  of  the  place,  in  the  modern  sense 
of  the  term,  is  clearly  indicated.  One  of  these  well-known  paintings  is  the 
bird's-eye  view  of  the  delta  of  a  river,  with  a  harbour  which  is  treated 
with  great  minuteness. 

These  decorative  paintings  must  have  resembled  the  works  of  the 
Roman  artist  Ludius,  who  is  praised  by  Pliny,  and  who  imitated  in  Italy 
the  manner  of  the  old  masters,  the  antiqui  of  whom  Vitruvius  speaks. 
He  painted  harbours,  country-houses,  canals,  rivers,  euripi,  mountains, 
and  flocks.  These  pictures,  according  to  Pliny,  had  the  additional  merit  of 
being  very  cheap,  and  Ludius  even  proposed  to  decorate  walls  in  the 
open  air  with  them. 


MOSAICS 

WHILE  a  decorative   painting   could   be   bought   at   a  low   price 
among  the  Romans,  mosaics,  on  the  other  hand,  were  a  criterion 
of  wealth. 
The  House  of  the  Faun  (First  Style),  with  its  stuccoed  walls  in  the  style 

of  the  Hellenistic  palaces,  is  one  of  the 
oldest  houses  in  the  city,  and  the  richest 
in  mosaics.  Alexandrian  feeling  is  re- 
vealed here  in  all  its  intensity,  giving 
yet  another  proof  of  the  influence  of  the 
Ptolemies  on  the  Campanians,  whose 
Greek  sympathies  were  so  lively. 

One  of  the  most  famous  of  these 
mosaics  is  the  Battle  of  Arbela.  Exe- 
cuted in  broken  tones,  in  which  black 
and  yellow,  red  and  white,  green  and 
blue  marble  are  harmoniously  combined,  it  forms  a  most  complete 
picture  by  virtue  of  its  ingenious  and  well-balanced  composition  and  the 
lively  action  of  its  figures.  This  historical  picture  is  probably  the  copy  of  a 
work  by  Helena,  a  contemporary  of  Alexander,  who  painted  an  Alexander 
against  Darius. 

The  frieze  at  the  foot  of  the  mosaic  represents  the  banks  of  the  Nile 


THE   ARTS 


381 


Mosaic  in  the  Villa  of  Diomedea 


covered  with  Egyptian  animals ;  it  is,  therefore,  almost  certainly  the  work 
of  a  Greek  artist  in  Alexandria. 


1;  ;-■"«■"?  Hj  •<!! ^'<? -vi -<!i 's; "«•■?' r r  .p- 17  p- r  rr  *« 


sc  'i 


Mosaic  of  the  Battle  of  Arbela  (Naples  Museum) 

The  Comic  Scene  found  in  the  House  of  Cicero,  which  is  smaller 
than  I  he  Battle  of  Arbela,  but  equally  fine,  is  also  the  work  of  a  Greek 
artist.  It  is  especially  remarkable  for  the 
range  of  its  rich  colour  scheme  and  for 
its  wonderfully  skilful  technique.  Our 
reproduction  (coloured  plate  No  XI I.)  can 
only  give  the  general  effect. 

This  little  mosaic,  a  veritable  master- 
piece, is  signed  in  Greek:  "" Dioscorides 
of  Samos  made  this."  A  close  examina- 
tion of  the  original  amazes  the  student. 
The  decomposition  of  the  tones  demanded 
by  the  process  is  carried  out  with  a 
mastery  that  few  suspect.  Tiny  cubes  cut  to  the  form  required  fit  in  the 
exact  place  in  the  mosaic  where  warm  shadows  are  touched  with  reflections 
or  where  cold  lights  break  into  iridescent  blues.     The  iris  of  the  eye  is 


;5 1 '''  'V  .5  A,i  ^  ji  jfi  J  ^.'  ^  fe..  k  L  k,  i,K  L.  i.  fe  w^i\ 


k;z::k£u&^ 


A  Mosaic  (after  Mazois) 


3^2 


POMPEI:   THE  CITY,   ITS   LIFE  AND  ART 


composed  of  several  very  minute 
fragments,  one  of  which  accen- 
tuates the  gleam  in  the  pupil  with 
a  shining  dot.  The  lines  of  the 
eyelids,  the  curve  of  the  nostrils, 
the  crease  of  the  mouth  caused 
by  the  ri'c/us  of  the  mask,  the 
scarlet  of  the  lips,  and  the  high 
light  on  them,  are  all  calculated, 
expressed,  and  executed  with 
extraordinary  power.  The  har- 
mony is  superb ;  yellow,  blue, 
green,  and  rose-colour  are  com- 
bined    in     sober     and     delicate 

modelling     against     a     neutral- 
Mosaic  Portrait  (Naples  Museum)  .  111  .  1  •   1       t 

tmted  background,  on  which  the 
sonorous  colours  seem  almost  vocal. 

A  mosaic,  found  at  Pompei  in 
1898  near  the  House  of  the  Vettii,  is 
another  work  unique  of  its  kind.  It 
has  none  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
Comic  Scene,  and  is  treated  in  an  en- 
tirely different  spirit.  By  the  kind 
permission  of  Professor  De  Petra, 
director  of  the  Naples  Museum,  I  am 
enabled  to  give  a  reproduction  of  it. 
It  is  the  portrait  of  a  young  woman, 
eight  inches  by  seven  in  size,  which 
was  set  in  the  centre  of  a  pavement. 
In  spite  of  the  irregularities  caused  by  the  wearing  away  of  the  small  stones, 
the  colour  is  soft   and   fused.     The  border  is   black,   and    the   ground  a 


Mosaic  in  the  Prothjrrum  of  the  House  of  the  Tragic 
Poet  (Naples  Museum) 


THE  ARTS 


383 


yellowish-brown  ;  the  dress  is  white,  and  the  hair,  which  is  greyish,  with 
reflected  lights,  is  bound  by  a  dark  riband.     The  eyebrows  are  black,  and 


Mosaic  Frieze  of  the  Baffle  o/Arbela  (Naples  Museum) 

the  grey  eyes  liquid  and  dreamy.  The  only  ornaments  are  earrings  and 
a  pearl  necklace  with  a  golden  clasp.  This  remarkable  work  of  art  must 
be  seen  at  a  certain  distance  to  be  appreciated,  when 
the  broken  lines  of  the  flesh  and  the  rosy  bloom  of 
the  cheeks  have  the  effect  of  a  pastel,  so  rich  and 
supple  is  the  modelling. 

Lastly,  we  have  a  large  number  of  black  and 
white  mosaics,  with  a  red  or  yellow  tone,  in  most 
original  geometrical  patterns,  the  different  varieties 

,  11      «  1/  i-i  ^         I  Mosaic  in  the  Villa  of  Diomedes 

of  which  are    called   embletna,  sectile,   and  alcxan- 

drinutn  opus ;  the  last  was  a  mosaic  of  three  colours.  We  also  find  those 
mosaics  which  Pliny  calls  asarotos  arus,  because  they  represented  an 
unswept  floor.  There  were  also,  as  we  know,  mosaic  columns  and  fountains 
of  foreign  style,  in  which  blue  was  the  predominant  colour.  The  cubes 
that  compose  them  are  of  glass  or  enamel  [muswum),  while  the  mosaics 
of  pavements,  with  their  delicate  shades  of  colour,  were  made  of  coloured 
marble  {lithostrotuni). 


SCULPTURE 


I 


ALEXANDRIAN  INFLUENCES  IN  CAMPANIA 

ON  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  when  all  the  world  was 
helienisedy  and  Greece  itself  partitioned,  local  influences  had  free 
play  and  new  artistic  centres  were  created.  It  was  then  that  the 
youthful  capital  of  Alexandria  outstripped  all  other  contemporary  centres  of 
civilisation,  mainly  owing  to  the  genius  of  the  Ptolemies,  and  took  posses- 
sion of  the  Hellenistic  movement.  This  movement  in  Egypt  may  be  called 
A/exandrianism,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Schools  of  Pergamum,  Rhodes, 
Tralles,  and  Greece  proper,  which  were  also  represented  by  brilliant  artists 
who  worthily  carried  on  the  artistic  traditions  of  Greece  and  produced 
many  masterpieces. 

Under  the  influence  of  philosophic  ideas  which  had  been  in  vogue  for 
a  considerable  time,  the  Greek,  who  had  once  been  so  near  to  the  gods, 
became  more  human  and  more  cosmopolitan.  The  ruggedness  of  his 
character  was  fined  down,  his  nature  softened  by  culture.  An  ideal  realism 
inspired  his  artists,  and  nude  statues  became  more  numerous.  Though 
tragic  incidents  were  occasionally  represented,  they  were  merely  a  pretext 
for  charming  compositions,  in  which  the  graceful  curves  of  youthful  bodies 
delight  the  eye.  The  result  of  this  tendency  was  a  certain  dainty  prettiness 
of  style  which  became  somewhat  insipid  in  the  later  Pompeian  period. 

The  Oriental  and  Attic  Schools  of  Hellenism,  examples  of  which  are 


THE  ARTS 


385 


rare  in  the  plastic  art  of  Pompei,  need  not  detain  us ;  but  we  may  point 
out  that  the  national  art  of  Egypt  had  an  influence  on  Alexandrianism, 
contributing  to  the  movement  the  sincere  spirit  of  realism  which  always 
characterised  it  Such  a  spirit  was  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  Lysippus, 
the  sculptor,  who,  coming  at  a  very  opportune  moment,  is  justly  considered 
the  founder  of  the  Alexandrian  School.  A  new  canon  was  adopted  in 
sculpture ;  the  heads  of  statues  became  smaller,  the  figures  slighter  and 
more  graceful,  the  hair  and  other  details  were  more  carefully  treated.  A 
marked  characteristic  of  the  school  was  the  deliberate  emphasising  of 
individuality,  an  outcome  of  its  careful  observation  of  nature  ;  the  strength 
of  Hercules  was  expressed  by  exaggerating  his  muscular  development,  and 
the  beauty  of  a  young  girl  by  a  charming  insistence  on  her  juvenile  grace. 
Thus,  according  to  Pliny,  Lysippus  taught  that  nature  was  the  model  to  be 
studied,  and  not  the  works  of  the  old  masters. 

Pompei,  a  Greek  city,  came  indirectly  under  these  influences,  and 
Alexandrianism  was  rapidly  acclimatised  there.  Traces  of  its  delightful  art 
are  to  be  met  with  at  every  turn.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  in  the  excavations 
at  Herculaneum  no  less  than  six  busts  of  the  Ptolemies  have  been  dis- 
covered, and  this  veneration  for  the  kings  of  Egypt  is  an  additional  proof 
of  the  deeply-rooted  Alexandrian  tastes  of  the  Campanian  cities. 

The  art  of  Pompei,  it  has  been  said,  is  less  pure  than  that  of  Hercula- 
neum. It  is  true  that  Pompei  was  a  trifle  frivolous,  like  every  city  of 
pleasure,  while  at  Herculaneum,  as  at  Naples,  Greek  influences  had  retained 
their  early  power.  Nevertheless  the  two  cities,  which  are  but  three  hours' 
walk  from  one  another,  and  lie  on  the  same  bay,  have  the  same  pictures,  the 
same  subjects,  the  same  styles  of  composition,  and  the  same  bronzes.* 

If  fewer  works  of  the  highest  order  are  found  in  Pompei,  the  difference 
is  due  to  the  different  conditions  under  which  two  cities  were  destroyed  on 
the  same  day.     Herculaneum,  in  spite  of  the  traces  of  attempts  made  by  the 

*  The  bronzes  of  Herculaneum  are  greenish  in  colour,  and  those  of  Pompei  are  blue.    This  is 
due  to  the  dififerent  conditions  of  the  destruction  of  the  two  cities. 

3c 


386 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


inhabitants  to  find  their  old  homes,  remained  intact ;  for  the  hot  mud  which 
had  flooded  the  city  had  hardened  on  cooling,  and  the  strata  that  cover  it 
are  much  deeper  than  those  of  Pompei.  The  city  was  therefore  safe  from 
pillage  in  ancient  times.  On  the  other  hand,  the  lapilli  (see  Part  I.)  under 
which  Pompei  was  buried  were  light,  and  did  not  form  a  solid  mass ; 
accordingly,  the  town  was  rifled  by  the  former  inhabitants,  and  it  is 
natural  to  suppose  that  they  did  not  carry  away  inferior  works  of  art.  The 
city  was  finally  abandoned  by  the  Pompeians,  as  no  longer  worth  the 
trouble  of  excavation. 

Among  the  sculptures  at  Pompei  are  frequently  found  copies  of 
Hellenistic  originals,  which  in  their  turn  were  often  reproductions  of  Greek 
works  of  art  altered  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  day.  Painting  borrowed  largely 
from  sculpture,  and  sculpture  in  its  turn  took  ideas  from  painting  for 
the  arrangement  of  groups.  Collectors  of  marbles,  like  connoisseurs  of 
pictures,  all  wished  to  be  the  possessors  of  an  example  of  a  great 
master's  work,  and  many  sculptors  made  pasticci.  Even  at  Pompei  there 
were  collectors  who  posed  as  persons  of  taste,  and  who  filled  their 
houses  with  statuettes  which  a  dealer  had  palmed  off  on  them  as  originals. 
The  Lucretius  we  have  mentioned,  the  owner  of  a  garden  full  of  marble 
statuettes,  was  an  artless  would-be  connoisseur  of  a  kind  that  has  never 
died  out 


II 


REPRODUCTIONS  OF  WORKS  BY  GREEK  SCULPTORS— THE  DORYPHORUS 

OF  POLYCLETUS— THE  BACCHUS  OF  PRAXITELES— THE  LYCIAN 

APOLLO— HERCULES  AND  THE  DOE.  BY  LYSIPPUS— THE  WORKS 

OF  THE  "ARCHAICISTS"— POLYCHROMATIC  MARBLE  STATUES 

TH  E  statues  of  greatest  artistic  value  at 
Pompei  are  mostly  of  bronze,  and  came 
from  the  old  houses  in  the  city.  The 
Dancing-  Faun  was  found  in  the  House  of 
Cassia  (the  House  of  the  Faun),  which  dates 
from  the  Samnite  period ;  Hercules  and  the 
Doe  in  the  House  of  Sallust,  which  is  of  the 
same  style ;  the  House  of  Pansa  owned  the 
group  of  Bacchus  and  Affipe/us,  and  in  the 
House  of  Popidius  was  found  the  life-size 
statue  of  Apollo,  a  late  essay  in  the  archaic 
style. 

An  interesting  feature  of  Pompei  is  that 
the  principal  periods  of  sculpture  are  all  repre- 
sented there,  beginning  with  Polycletus,  who 
lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fifth  century  u.c. 
A  marble  copy  of  his  Doryphorus  stood  in  the 
palastra.  M.  Guillaume,  speaking  of  this 
statue,  says:  "The  whole  work  gives  the  effect  of  redoubtable  strength, 


The  Doryphorus  of  Polycletus 
Marble  Statue  in  the  Naples  Museum) 


388  POMPEI :  THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 

regulated  by  discipline  and  exercise.  It  is  un- 
ostentatious, it  is  seen  and  forgotten,  and  the 
youth  that  tempers  it  is  shown  by  a  sort  of 
abandonment  of  self  to  Nature.  These  power- 
ful forms  do  not,  however,  express  physical 
strength  only  :  they  show  a  dignity,  a  becoming 
modesty,  a  discreet  self-confidence,  a  frame  of 
mind  worthy  of  a  free  man,  in  short."* 

This  statue  was  the  Greek  canon  or 
standard,  based  on  a  system  of  measurement, 
according  to  Guillaume,  "by  which  it  should  be 
possible  to  find  the  dimensions  of  a  part  by 
the  dimensions  of  the 
whole,  and  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  whole 
from  the  least  of  its 
parts."  This  formula, 
which     provided     for 

every  detail,  was   the   result,  in    Polycletus'  case, 

of  mathematical  investigations ;  but  the  principle, 

excellent  in  the  hands  of  the  master,  was  in  danger 

of  becoming  a  convention  useless  to  all  but  artists 

of  the  highest  talent     The  statues  of  Polycletus 

are   characterised    by   a   great   feeling   for   noble 

strength,  but   his   figures   are  somewhat   massive 

and  lacking  in  charm. 

This  charm,  idealistic  and  captivating,  is  seen 

at  its  highest  in  Praxiteles,  who  with  Phidias  re- 
presented the  twofold  character  of  Greek  genius. 

Praxiteles,  in  the  words  of  M.    Collignon,    "  first 

'^  Dictionnaire  de  I'AcaJimu  des  Beaux-Arts,  and  Sculpture  Grecque,  Vol.  II.,  by  M.  Collignon 


Racdras  (Bronze  Statuette  in  the  Naples 
Museum) 


Marble  Statue  of  the  Lycian  Apollo 
(Naples  MuMtun) 


THE   ARTS 


389 


revealed  to  the  plastic  art  of  Greece  the  supple- 
ness and  grace  that  can  be  given  to  the  human  form 
by  a  carefully  arranged  attitude."  The  Bacchus, 
found  in  a  wash-house,  is,  in  M.  Martha's* 
opinion,  a  very  fine  Greek  specimen  of  this  style. 
**  The  delicacy  of  the  forms,  a  certain  '  bloom  of 
youth,'  an  indefinable  and  almost  feminine  charm, 
the  careless  grace  of  the  attitude,  the  contrasting 
play  of  the  hip  and  shoulders,  the  sinuous  lines 
from  head  to  foot,  the  free  and  varied  action  of 
the  arms,  the  pose  of  the  legs,  which  expresses  the 
balance  of  a  movement  momentarily  checked  rather 
than  the  immobility  of  repose,  at  once  reveal  the 


Bronze  Head  (Naples  Museum) 


Dancing  Faun  (Bronze  Statuette  in  the 
Naples  Museum) 

school  of  Praxiteles,  if  not  the 
hand  of  the  master  himself." 
This  statuette,  which  is  too 
often  referred  to  as  the  Nar- 
cissus, had  silver  eyes— (a  com- 
mon detail  in  Greek  statues) 
— and  was,  in  Martha's  opinion, 
a  small  copy  of  one  of  the 
Dionysi  or  Satyrs  of  Praxiteles. 
The  fawn-skin,  and  the  ivy- 
berries  that  crown  the  head  of 
the  statue,  which  are  attributes 

'^-  Kayet,  Monuments  de  VArt. 


390 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY.   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


of  Dionysus,  and  not  of  Narcissus,  are  quoted  by  archaeologists  in  favour 
of  the  identification  with  Bacchus ;  one  foot  also  is  not  set  on  the  ground, 

but  raised  to  beat  a  measure,  while  the  first 
finger  of  the  right  hand  emphasises  a  command 
to  some  animal,  perhaps  the  attendant  panther. 

The  Apollo  at  Rest,  a  statue  of  brilliant 
polished  marble,  may  be  attributed  to  the  school 
of  Praxiteles.  This  statue  is  certainly  a  re- 
production of  the  Lycian  Apollo,  to  whom  the 
gymnasium  at  Athens  was  dedicated,  described 
by  Lucian  in  his  Anackarsis.  (The  movement 
of    the   fitrure    is    a    favourite    one    in    ancient 

O 

statues.) 

The  small  group   of  Bacchus  and  Ampelus 

is  of  a  mixed  school,  and  there  is  something  of 

Praxiteles'    manner    in    the   figure    of   Ampelus. 

The  eyes  and  the  inlaid  work  on   the   base  are 

of  silver. 

We    may    next    admire    a    youthful    head, 

found  at  Pompei ;  *  the  mysterious  and  the 
beautiful  are  combined  in  this  enigmatic  face.  The  expression  is 
strained,  the  head  droops  forward  in  a  sort  of  bewildered  amazement, 
the  lips  are  parted,  the  eyes 
fixed,  and  lost  in  vague 
contemplation.  The  head 
was  bound  by  a  gold  fillet, 
and  the  hair  is  treated  in 
the    manner    of    the    great 

Greek      sculptors.  No     ex-  Bronze  Ammals  (Naples  Museum) 

planation  has  been  given  of  this  Greek  masterpiece.     We  will   not   insist 

*  Not  at  Herculaneum,  as  Rayet  states. 


Bronze  Statuette  of  Silenus  drunk 
(Naples  Museum) 


THE   ARTS 


39« 


on  its  kinship  to  the  works  of 
Praxiteles ;  but  it  is  a  work  of  a 
very  high  order,  admirable  in  its 
grace  and  masterly  in  treatment. 
The  small  bronze  figure  of  a 
Faun  is  full  of  life  and  vigorous 
activity  ;  the  balance  of  the  move- 
ment as  the  body  sways  to  the 
strenuous  Bacchic  measure,  and 
the  firm  elastic  modelling  of  the 
flesh,  give  great  animation  to  the 
little  figure.  The  same  spirit  (one 
in  which  Asiatic  influences  are 
to  be  noted)  informs  the  bronze 
Silenus,  planted  firmly  on  his 
feet,  who  struggles  to  regain  the  ^ 
balance  that  wine  has  made  him 
lose.     He  exerts  his  full  strength 


Bronze  Group  of  Hercules  and  the  Doe  (Museum  of  Palermo) 


Satyr  with  the  Wine-skin  (Bronze  Statuette  in  the  Naples  Museum) 

to  support  the  weight  on  his 
arm  ;  the  strain  is  shown  chiefly 
by  his  right  hand,  which  acts 
as  a  counterpoise.  This  bronze 
recalls  the  shaggy  Pappo-Sileni 
in  Pompeian  paintings,  where 
Bacchus  is  represented  as  a 
hermaphrodite. 

The  statuette  of  the  Satyr 
with  the  Wine-skin  is  bold, 
natural,  and  full  of  action,  and 
is  treated  with  the  freedom  of 
a  sketch  in  the  clay. 


39« 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


The  first  stage  of  Alexandrian 
art  is  represented  by  a  bronze  group 
in  the  Museum  at  ?a\ermo  of //ercu/es 
and  the  Doe,  a  subject  very  famous 
in  antiquity.  The  group  from  Pom- 
pei  must  certainly  be  a  replica  of 
the  original  by  Lysippus,  a  detailed 
description  of  which  is  given  in  an 
epigram  in  the  Greek  anthology. 

The  style  of  this  group  is 
peculiar;  the  hair  is  treated  with 
great  technical  skill,  and  the  coat  of 
the  doe  is  indicated 
by  the  tool  all  over 
the  body,  and  on 
the  breast  by  a 
small  star.  The 
modelling  of  the 
figures  is  very  cor- 
rect, and  the  whole  group  is  marked  by  the  extreme 
finish  characteristic  of  the  style  oi  Lysippus,  who, 
according  to  Pliny,  carried  his  passion  for  detail  into 
the  minutest  portions  of  his  work.  The  Two  Dogs  and 
a  Boar  is  another  example  of  his  style. 

A  large  bronze  statue  of  Apollo  Sagittarius,  from 
the  Temple  of  Apollo,  follows  the  canon  of  Lysippus  in 
its  graceful  proportions,  but  is  somewhat  cold.  It  is 
the  work  of  a  Greek  sculptor  in  Italy  in  the  first 
century  B.C.,  and  is  perhaps  a  reminiscence  of  an  older 
statue. 


Bronze  Statuettes  of  Bacchus  and  Ampelus 
(Naples  Museum) 


At   the   same   period  (88  B.C.)  Pasiteles,  a  Greek 


Bronze  Sutueite  of  Apollo,  in 

the  revived  Archaic  Style 

(Naples  Museum) 


THE   ARTS 


393 


artist  born  in  Southern  Italy,  whom  we  have  already  mentioned,  came  into 

prominence.      His  art   was  a  reaction  against  the  naturalistic  school;   he 

took  the  works  of  the  archaic  Attic  period  as 

his  models,  thus  giving  his  work,  according  to 

Collignon,    "a    mixed    character    of    doubtful 

harmony." 

No  work  by  Pasiteles  has  come  down  to 
U9,  but  there  are  statues  in  his  style  at  Pompei, 
as,  for  example,  the  Apollo  Citharcedus.  In 
this  figure  the  hair  is  rolled  round  a  circlet 
which  confines  the  head,  and  falls  in  a  fringe 
of  curls.  The  face  with  its  large  silver  eyes 
has  an  enigmatic  expression  in  keeping  with 
the  character  of  Apollo,  the  god  of  prophecy. 
The  right  hand  still  holds  ih^  plectrum,  but  the 
lyre  has  disappeared.  This  temporary  revival 
of  the  archaic  style  was  popular  among  the 
Roman  dilettanti,  who  had  wearied  of  the 
realism  of  Alexandrian  art,  and  who  perhaps 
found  in  it  a  touch  of  the  lost  Egyptian  feeling 
which  had  inspired  many  of  the  Roman  sculptors.  Indeed,  the  work  of  the 
archaic  Attic  school  has  some  analogies  with  the  art  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 

The  archaicists  of  the  first  century  b.c.  did  not  slavishly  imitate  early 
statues,  for,  as  M.  Collignon  remarks,  a  nude  Apollo  Citharcedus  is  unknown 
in  archaic  art ;  but  they  tried  to  give  a  special  charm  to  their  work  by  a 
certain  mannered  distinction.  Thus,  in  the  charming  marble  Diana,  with 
gilded  hair  and  robes  coloured  in  places  (like  the  more  ancient  mutilated 
statue  of  the  goddess  in  the  old  Attic  style  in  the  museum  of  the  Acropolis 
at  Athens*),  the  figure  is  represented  in  an  attitude  which  is  never  seen  in 
genuine  archaic  statues.     She  is  walking  almost  on  tip-toe,  t  a  conclusive 

*  See  Collignon,  La  Polychromie  dans  la  Sculpture  grecque.        f  Emmanuel,  La  Dansc  grecquc  antique. 

2>^ 


Polychrome  Marble  Statue  of  Diana,  in 

the  revived  archaic  Style  (Naples 

Museum ) 


394 


POMPEI  .  THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


proof  that  the  Artemis  of  Pompei  is  only  a  free  imitation  of  the  archaic 

style.* 

Another  beautiful  statue,  which  was  taken   from  a  iararium,  shows 
traces  of  archaicism    in  its   accessories.     The  statue  itself  is  not  of  this 

character,  but  the  small  figure  against  which  the 
goddess  is  leaning  is  in  the  Jirchaic  style.  The 
Venus  is  very  beautiful :  she  holds  the  apple,  and 
with  her  right  hand  seems  to  invite  the  homage 
due  to  the  loveliness  of  her  half-nude  body.  The 
legs  are  covered  by  an  orange  mantle  lined  with 
greyish-blue.  The  hair  is  a  warm  yellow,  the 
eyes  and  eyebrows  are  black,  and  the  ears  are 
pierced.  1  he  small  archaic  figure  is  dressed  in  a 
green  and  yellow  chiton,  and  wears  on  her  head 
the  7nodius. 

Colour  is  sparingly  used  on  marble  statues  in 
Pompei,  as  in  the  archaic  statues,  which  were 
only  partially  tinted.  The  dress,  or  some  details 
of  the  ornament  of  the  draperies,  is  coloured,  while 
the  smooth  clear  marble  does  duty  for  the  flesh, 
untouched  save  for  the  wax  with  which  it  was 
lightly  coated,  an  operation  which,  while  pre- 
serving the  surface  of  the  statue,  gave  the  effect  of  the  warm  lustre  of  pearly  car- 
nations. Touches  of  colour  on  eyes,  eyebrows,  and  lips  completed  the  illusion  ; 
the  goddess  appeared  possessed  of  all  her  living  charm  and  all  her  power. 

*  Winckelmann,  who  saw  the  statue  when  it  was  first  discovered,  gives  a  detailed  description 
of  the  colours,  which  have  since  faded :  golden  hair,  wide  fillet  set  with  gilt  rosettes,  tunic  bordered 
with  pink,  peplum  with  a  narrow  band  of  reddish-purple,  on  which  white  palm-leaves  were 
painted,  to  represent  embroidery.  The  thongs  of  the  sandals,  and  the  strap  which  holds  the 
quiver,  are  painted  pink  and  purple.  The  strap  of  the  quiver  has  white  dots  representing  silver 
nails. 


Statue  of  \'enus  in  Polychrome  Marble 
(Naples  Museum) 


"fl 


III 


Pt/TT/— MARBLE  FURNITURE— BUSTS  OF  MEN  AND  WOMEN— OFFICIAL 

STATUES 

CERTAIN  sculptures  introduce  us  to  a  more  intimate  art,  to  the 
charming  t>utti  of  bronze,  marble  or  terra-cotta,  which  are  very 
Alexandrian  in  character,  and  resemble  the  Loves  in  Pompeian 
paintings.  Audacious  as  these 
are,  they  are  nevertheless  made 
useful  in  a  variety  of  ways ;  they 
hold  lamps,  ornament  fountains, 
or  pour  out  water.  Several  of 
them  have  dolphins  in  their  arms, 
like  the  Cupid  of  the  epigram. 
"  This  Love  is  naked ;  see  how 
he  smiles !  He  is  of  gentle  aspect, 
for  he  has  neither  bow  nor  burn- 
ing arrows.  'Tis  not  without 
reason  he  has  in  his  hands  a 
dolphin  and  a  flower,  for  in  the 
one  he   holds  the   land,  and   in 

the  other  the  sea."  Bronze  Lamp-hoWer  (Naples  Museum) 

The  gardens  and  viridaria  of  Pompei  were  full  of  these  statuettes, 
often  combined  with  figures  of  Bacchus,  Silenus,  Satyrs,  and  fishers.  The 
marble  basins  and  the  cartibuluyn  in  the  atrium  were  often  veritable  works 


396 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


of  art.  (The  cartibulum 
in  the  House  of  Cor- 
nelius Rufus  and  the 
three-legged  table  which 
was  found  in  a  small 
house  in  Pompei  are 
very  fine.)  The  tables 
that  stood  against  the 
walls  are  made  of  the 
finest  kinds  of  veined 
marble,  and  were  sup- 
ported by  terms  with 
^    women's  heads,  or  heads 

Marble  Table  (Pompei)  of   BaCchuS  and  SilenUS, 

like    those   in    the    little   museum    at    Pompei,    which   is 

constantly  being  enriched  by  new  discoveries. 

The  greatest  possible  variety  is  shown  in  the  various 

designs,  which  are  wonderfully  clever  and  ingenious.     The 

subject  is  always  suited  to  the 
material  employed  and  the  use 
for  which  it  is  destined — simple 
qualities,  too  often  forgotten  in 
modern  art  There  is  no  extrava- 
gance or  exaggeration  in  Pom. 
peian    sculpture ;    everything    is 

Bronze  Cupid  (Naples 

sober,   carefully   considered,    and  Museum) 

well  balanced.  The  artist's  work  shows  no  sign 
of  effort ;  he  follows  a  superior  guidance,  drinking 
at  the  fountain-head.  Here  is  Hellenism  in  all 
its  purity. 

Marble  Bust  of  a  Ponip«Man  Woman  , 

(Naples  Museum)  A  great   number  of   these   sculptures  must 


THE  ARTS 


397 


have  been  executed  in  Campania  by  Greek  artists  who  had  settled  there. 


The  Feet  of  the  Cartibulum  of  Cornelius  Rufus 

The  busts  which  still  preserve  the  living  charm  of  the  buried  Pompeian 

women  must  have  been  their  work.  One  of  them 
has  an  archaic  stamp  which  is  not  without  a 
certain  charm. 

There   are    also   portraits  of  rich  townsmen 


Bronze  Putto  (Torch-bearer) 
(Naples  Museum) 


Marble  Busts  of  Pompeian  Women 
(Naples  Museum) 


of     Pompei — Jucundus,     Norbanus,    Sorex,    and     Cornelius    Rufus;     and 


41 


i 


U 


39« 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


I 


of    public     priestesses,    the     best     known     of    whom     is    the    priestess 
Eumachia,* 

Another  statue  of  extremely  pure  white  marble  is  a  portrait  of  Octavia, 
a  priestess  of  Augustus.     In  spite  of  the  official  dress,  the  figure  with  its 


>«^ 


Marble  Foot  of  a  Table, 
Monopodium  (Museum 
of  Pompei) 


Marble  SUtue  of  Octavia,  Priestess 
of  Augustus  (Naples  Museum) 


Marble  Foot  of  a  Table, 
Monopodium  (Museum 
of  Pompei) 


carefully  curled  hair  and  conscious  elegance  is  too  coquettish  to  inspire 
respect.  She  is  a  beautiful  woman  in  a  conspicuous  position,  delighted  with 
the  admiration  she  excites. 

Holconius  Rufus,  whose  name  is  so  often  found  on  the  public  buildings 
of  the  city,  is  represented  in  the  Imperial  dress.     The  head  was  a  separate 

*  See  the  statue  of  Eumacbia,  p.  103;  the  bust  of  Jucundus,  p.  214;  the  bust  of  Norbanus 
Sorex,  p.  80. 


THE    ARTS 

work,  and  was  probably  placed  on  the  body  of  a  Roman  Emperor, 
was  usual  under  the  Emperors,  for  the 
official  statue  is  always  the  same,  the  head 
only  varies.  The  statue,  which  was  par- 
tially coloured,  was  found  broken  beside 
its  pedestal,  on  which  is  the  following 
inscription:*      "To     Marcus     Holconius 


399 


This 


Marble  Bust  of  Cornelius  Rufus 


Marble  Statue  of  Holconius  Rufus  (Naples  Museum) 


Rufus,  son  of  Marcus,  duumvir,  magistrate  for  the  fifth  time,  quinquennalis, 
military  tribune  elected  by  the  people,  priest  of  Augustus,  and  head  of  the 
colony." 

*  See  p.  193. 


■t'^uwr*-'^ 


it 


IV 


TERRACOTTA  STATUES  AND  STATUETTES— BAS-RELIEFS  AND  VARIOUS 
OBJECTS  OF  TERRACOTTA— POLYCHROME  TERRACOTTA 


M 


1 


ANY  of  the  terra-cotta  statues  are  of  much  larger  dimensions  than 
is  usual  at  the  present  clay.  The  most  important  are  life-size,  like 
the  Jupiter  and  Juno  from  the  so-called  Temple  of  i^sculapius. 
They  are  not  of  much  artistic  interest,  but  there  are  two 
life-size  figures  in  the  Naples  Museum — statues  of  ephebi 
wrapped  in  the  pallium  and  standing  in  a  manly  and 
graceful  attitude,  which  are  remarkable.  There  are  also 
some  terra-cotta  statues,  of  which  the  lower  part  alone 
remains,  and  some  portions  of  which,  if  not  the  whole,* 
must  have  been  cast  from  the  life.  An  example  of  this 
class  of  work  is  a  statue  of  a  child,  where  the  small 
figure  is  very  life-like  and  realistic  in  its  treatment,  and 
very  well  modelled.  The  arms  are  unfortunately  wanting. 
A  statue,  which  M.  von  Rohden  calls  the  Sick  Man\ 
— an  old  man  seated,  with  only  one  foot  visible,  and 
holding  a  roll  of  papyrus — is  a  Greek  type,  and  may  be 
the  portrait  of  some  Greek  philosopher.  The  two  statues 
of  an  actor  and  an  actress  (p.  1 70)  are  very  different  in 

Terra-Cotfa  Statue  of  a 

Child  (Naples  Museum)     ^\y^\^     The  actor,  Standing  squarely  on  his  feet,  is  the 

*  These  casts  must  have  been  used  as  votive  offerings. 
\  H.  von  Kohden,  Die  Terra-cotten  von  Pompeji. 


THE   ARTS 


401 


more  interesting  of  the  two,  and  reminds  one  of  the  outline  of  a  well-known 

work  of  Rodin's.     The  folds  of  drapery  are  sober  in 

treatment  and  roughly  but  sufficiently  indicated.     The 

mask  has  two  deep  cavities   in  place  of  eyes,  which 

gives  the  face   a  curious   expression.     These   statues 

were  either  polychrome  or  were  intended  to  be  coloured. 

and  several  of  them  were  painted  with  a  first  coat  of 

white  ;  very  few  ancient  statues  of  terra-cotta  which 

are  entirely  without  any  trace   of  colour   have   been 

discovered  so  far. 

The  gargoyles  of  the  Greek  temple  (the  Temple 

of  Hercules)  were  coloured,  and  a  lion's  head  has  been 

found  which  is  painted  yel- 
low ;  the  mane  is  black,  and 
the  mouth  and  the  inside  of 
the  ears  are  coloured  red. 
The  terra-cotta  gutters  and  T 
antifixcr  still  show  traces  of 

,  .  ,  ,  I-phebus  wearing  the  Him  alio  n 

colouring,  and   many  of  them        (Terra-cotta  statue  in  the 
^  Naples  Museum) 

^:.  had    been    covered    with    a 

i«w-.    m    jnaw    n  i  ~    ^^^^  ^^  white  stucco  to  block  out  the  ornament, 

1%       h'ilW   \\\  -    which  had  probably  gone  out  of  fashion. 

Statuettes   were  coloured   like  the  Tanagra 

figurines,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  specimens,  a 

Venus,    a    Minerva,  i^neas,    Anchises,  and  As- 

f^-^f^ '     A*^^       ,^-.         canius,    a   fruit-seller,  and   a   Greek    or    Roman 

^  .,         ,    ^    .        Charity,  which  is  a  replica  of  a  paintinof  in   Pom- 

Terra-cotta  Statue  of  a  Greek  -^  r  I  J-» 

Philosopher  (Naples  Museum)  p^j  jj^^  j^ares  of  the  poor  Were  made  of 
terra-cotta,  and  also  Atlantes,  pottery  of  all  kinds,  common  uXensils,  vases 
representing  ithyphallic  actors,  and  a  figure  of  a  woman  carrying  a  swaddled 
baby.     Besides  these  there   are   innumerable  toys  and  votive  offerings  in 


i 


f! 


402 


POMPKI:   THE   CITY,   ITS    LIFE   AND   ART 


this  material,  piij^s.  hens,  cocks,  piijeons.  doors,  cats,  panthers,  horses,  dolphins, 


Tt.l.nmon  supporting  a  Table,  Terra-cotti  (in 
the  F'ompei  Museum) 


Terra-co«t^  I^amp  coated  with  a  Metallic  GUze, 
Luceroa  bylichnis  (Naples  Muscuni) 


Bas-Relief  of  Terra  cotta  ( Region  VI.  Insula  XV. )  Gargoyle  of  a  Gutter,  Terra-cotta  (Ponipci  Museum) 

tritons.  birds,  doves,  bears,  rams,  and  so  on.  all  cleverly  modelled  and  fairly 
correct  in  their  main  characteristics.     We  find,  too,  models  of  fruit,  apples, 


THE   ARTS 


403 


oranges,   pome^rranates,    and  pine-apples,  and   a   j^reat  quantity  of  lamps, 
many  of  the  lar«jer  sort  coated  with  a  metallic  y^laze. 

Victory  driving  a  Biga  is  represented  in  three  bas-reliefs  in  the  same 
house,  each  of  which  is  fastened  to  the  wall  by  three  large  nails.  Here, 
again,  colour  is  used  on  terra-cotta.  The  horses  are  orange-red  ;  Victory  is 
dressed  in  green,  with  a  cap  of  the  same ;  the  hands  and  face  are  pink,  and 
the  colours  are  exactly  like  those  used  on  antique  statuettes. 

There  are  no  specimens  at  Pompei  of  the  ancient  earthenware  vases  of 
pure  and  artistic  shapes  with  painted  ornament.  The  fragments  of  pottery 
that  have  been  found  are  of  Etrusco-Campanian  ware,  generally  coated  with 
a  brilliant  black  glaze,  and  imitating  bronze  and  silver  plate.  Several  of 
these  vases  are  red  and  glazed  ;  they  have  necks,  and  are  fluted  and  decorated 
very  simply.  The  almost  entire  absence  of  vases  like  those  found  at  Nola 
in  Campania  is  due  to  the  same  cause  which  prevents  our  discovering  Italiot 
paintings  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Pompei. 


I 


i 

'J 


I 


WHITE  AND  F'OLYCHROME  STUCCO-STUCCO  FIGURES— A  STUCCO  MASK 

STUCCO,  as  we  have  seen,  was  very  larj^ely  used  in   Pomj^ei.  and  the 
richness  of   the    mural   decorations,   which   gave   an    impression   of 
Alexandrian  mai^nificence.  was  partly  owing  to  the  use  of  stucco.      In 
the  pre-Roman  style  it  was  employed  to  imitate  architectural  reliefs,  and 
at  a  later  period  to  avoid  the  expense  of  marble.     The  best  kind  of  stucco 

work     is    contem|X)rary 
with    what    is    known 


tn  -t~i  'jn  '• 


as    the    Architectural 
Style. 

Although  in  some  re- 
spects decorated  stucco, 
like     polychrome     terra- 

Polychrome  Stucco-work  (Naples  Museum)  COtta     is    Connected     with 

the  art  of  painting,  and  makes  use  of  colour  in  the  background,  in  certain 
moulded  ornaments,  and  even  in  panels  where  the  figures  are  left  in  relief, 
it  belongs  to  plastic  art,  and  is  closely  allied  to  bas  relief  and  sculpture  in 
marble,  of  which  it  is  an  imitation. 

The  most  interesting  specimen  of  these  panels  is  preserved  in  the 
Naples  Museum.  It  has  the  character  of  the  Third  Style  of  decoration, 
which  was  in  vogue  under  the  early  Emperors.  The  architectonic  details 
are  in  stucco  relief,  and  also  the  central  group  which  represents  Silenus 
drunk,  accompanied   by  a   Faun  and  a   Bacchante.      The  figures  on  the 


THE   ARTS 


405 


pediments,  and  the  figures  which  appear  to  be  opening  doors,  are  also  in 

relief.      The   ground  of   the  centre   panel   is    red,   and   so   are  the  small 

truncated  rectangles,  which  are  painted  with  mythological  scenes.     They  are 

surrounded  by  a  border  of  azure  blue,  and  the  single  figures  on  either  side 

are  coloured.     Yellow,  blue,  green,  red,  and  black  are  used  in  the  various 

complex  decorative  details  of  the  ornament. 

The  colouring  of   decorative  stucco-work  has   disappeared   in    many 
cases,  or  is  very  much  faded,  as  in  the  Baths  of  Stabia^.      Here  the  detail 


Stucco-work  in  the  Apodyterium  of  the  Baths  of  the  Forutn 

is  crowded  and  exaggerated  ;  stairs,  small  columns  supporting  porticoes 
hung  with  drapery,  and  festoons  of  garlands  are  represented  ;  and  in  the 
foreground  of  the  painted  panels  all  Olympus  is  enthroned,  and  athletes, 
animals,  and  landscapes  cover  the  teeming  walls.  The  vaulted  roof  of  the 
tepidariutn  of  the  Baths  of  the  Forum  is  more  sober  in  style,  and  the 
panels  and  coffers  of  the  ceiling  are  skilfully  combined,  and  decorated  with 
figures  on  a  red  or  blue  ground.  In  a  frieze  there  are  bands  of  graceful 
foliage,  and  a  candelabrum,  like  those  introduced  in  painting,  separates  two 
of  the  motives.  In  the  tepidarium,  stucco  imitates  marble  bas-reliefs  more 
closely  than  in  the  previous  examples. 

Stucco  is  particularly  interesting  when  it  is  applied  to  figures.     On  one 


I 


N^i 


Stucco  Figure  in  the  Naples 
Museum 


406  I'OMl'EI:    THE    CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 

of  the  outer  walls  of  the  mcgarum  of  the  Temple  of 
\^  I  sis  there  is  a  jrraceful  jj^roup,   in   which   a   slender 
I    woman,  partly  draped  in  a  Hoatinjr  veil,  is  remark- 
able for  spirited  treatment  and  supple  grace. 

The  small  figure  holding  a  lyre,  rapidly  modelled 
in  soft  stucco  as  though  it  were  clay  or  wax,  has 
the  same  qualities.  Traces  of  the  artist's  methods 
are  so  clearly  marked  in  stucco-work  of  this  kind 
that  we  can  easily  follow 
the  process. 

The  ground  of  tlat 
stucco  was  applied  wet.  It  is  easy  to  see  the 
contours  indicated  on  the  moist  surface  with 
a  pointed  instrument,  or  a  trowel,  used  flat  or 
pointed,  and  skilfully  emphasising  the  relief  of 
the  forms.  These  stuccoes  resemble  those  of  -<;,;, 
the  Farnesina.*  and  would  be  taken  at  the 
present  day  for  rough  models,  for  the  head, 
hands,  and  feet  are  usually  unfinished.  They  tL^ 
are  but  "  impressions "  rapidly  thrown  off,  and 

in  this  lies  their  origi- 

Stucco  Group  in  the  Meg.irum  of  the 

nality.       There      are  Temple  of  his 

plenty  of  e.xamples  of  ancient  bas-reliefs,  where 
masterly  modelling  is  combined  with  accurate 
drawing  ;  here,  however,  we  get  the  same  quali- 
ties in  the  rough,  and  note  the  freshness  and 
spirit  of  the  Campanian  artist,  and  his  eminently 
decorative  sense.  Much  of  this  stucco  work  is 
infinitely  superior  in  artistic  feeling  to  many 
marble  bas-reliefs  of  the  Roman   period.     They 


.\lcxandnaQ  Hciid 
(from  the  Collection  of  M.  Not^l) 


See  CollignoD,  "Le  Style  dticoratif  ^  Rome"  {Rcviu  dt  FArt,  September  and  October  1897). 


THE    ARTS 


407 


have  the  advantage  of  rapid  execution  a  fresca ;  retouching  was  inad- 
missible ;  and  Alexandrian  art  found  in  stucco  a  wide  scope  for  its  delicate 
and  imaginative  work. 

As  a  last  example  of  stucco,  we  give  a  small  mask,  made  of  the  finest 
quality  of  stucco,  like  ivory  in  effect,  which  was  found  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Pompei.  It  has  not  been  noticed  hitherto  ;  the  face,  with  its  malicious 
smile  and  great  searching  eyes,  has  a  gently  ironical  expression.  The  head 
is  "bound  with  pendant  fillets,  covering  the  hair,  which  is  wreathed  with  ivy- 
berries.  This  mask  of  the  Alexandrian  Bacchante  may  have  been  an 
ornament  for  some  piece  of  furniture.  It  is  too  delicate  in  workmanship  to 
have  been  one  of  the  hamrinir  masks  fastened  to  a  tree  to  drive  awav  birds 
and  evil  spirits. 


>.J&fi«llEl..jiiiii_Ad>AaL 


:|i 


'|l 


J  ll 


H:% 


i 


OBJETS   DART 
I 

SILVER 

THE  common  articles  of  daily  use  in  Pompei  are  of  such  hijj^h  artistic 
merit  that  they  might  be  included  under  the  head  of  odjeis  d'art. 
There  is  such  a  large  collection  of  these,  that  we  have  given  illus- 
trations of  them  throughout  the  book,  and  in  this  chapter  we  will  only  notice 

the  finest  and  most  artistic  specimens, 
for  description  and  illustration  of  the 
whole  collection  would  fill  a  volume. 

Silver  plate  was  the  ostensible 
sign  of  wealth  and  of  the  pride  of 
wealth,  and  the  abuse  of  this  ex- 
travagant fashion,  which  came  origin- 
ally from  the  East,  was  punished,  says 
Drinking-cup.sc)phus( Naples  Museum)  Pliny,    by   the  Social  Waf   of  Sylla. 

However,  the  taste  of  "  risen  "  men  who  had  made  their  fortunes  remained 
the  same,  as  is  shown  by  the  splendid  silver  plate  in  the  Naples  Museum, 
the  Bernay  and  Hildesheim  treasures,  and,  above  all,  by  the  treasure 
discovered  at  Bosco  Reale,  near  Pompei,  on  the  estate  of  Signor  de  Prisco, 
and  generously  presented  to  the  Louvre  by  Baron  Ed.  de  Rothschild. 
M.  Heron  de  Villefosse  has  written  a  learned  and  appreciative  account* 
•'  Communications  faites  k  I'Acadimie  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres,"  in  the  meetings  of 


THE    ARTS 


409 


of  this  collection,  and   has  described  and  commented   on    each    specimen 

separately.     This  treasure*  was  found 

in    the    vat    of    a    wine-press    in     a 

country  villa  buried  near  Bosco  Reale. 

to  the   north    of   Pompei.      Beside    it 

was  stretched  a  skeleton,  surrounded 

by  a  hundred  gold   pieces  and  some 

jewellery.   Another  skeleton  was  found 

in  the  house,  and  cast  by  the  process 

described  in  Part  I.  «,     ,.   .^      /vt   ,    »« 

Silver  Cantharus  (Naples  Museum) 

{'f^ j^^^  The  one  hundred  and  two  articles  in  this 

collection   include    cups,    vases,   trays,   shells, 
saucepans,  salt-cellars,  mirrors,  and  bowls. 

The  most  important  bowl  has  as  an 
ornament  the  bust  of  a  woman  supposed 
to  be  the  personification  of  the  city  of 
Alexandria.  This  is  not  surprising,  for 
Pompei.  as  we  have  seen,  is  full  of  souvenirs 

of  the  banks  of  the  Nile.      M.  Heron  de  Ville- 
fosse gives  a  detailed  description  of  this  bowl. 

and  enumerates  thirty  different    emblems    on 

it— the    uncus,     the    bow,     the    quiver,    the 

crescent,  the  horn,   the  si  strum,  the  panther, 

the  lion,  &c.,  all  on  a  patera  only  eight-and- 

a  half  inches  round  !    In  spite  of  their  number, 

the    emblems    are     so    carefully    distributed 

and    well     balanced     that   the     effect   is   not 


Silver  Drinkiiig-cup.  Cantharus,  from  the  Bosco 
Kcnie  Treasure  (The  louvre) 


Silver  Drinking-cup,  Modiolus 
(Naples  Museum) 


June  28  and  November  8,  and  in  the  annual  public  meeting  on  November  15,  1896  (extracts  from 
the  minutes  of  the  Academie).  See  also  fascicules  IX.  and  X.  of  the  Monuments  et  Mcmoires  dc  la 
Fondation  Piot. 

A  hundred  and  two  pieces.     Seven  of  these  were  generously  added  to  the  collection  by  other 
donorsii 


3F 


n 


i 


\ 


410 


rOMPEl:    THE   CITY,    ITS    LIFE   AND    ART 


^f-l 


in  the  least  heavy.  The 
workmanship  is  exceed- 
ingly fine  and  delicate 
throughout. 

The  bowls  are 
ornamented  with  table 
utensils,  and  food,  ani- 
mals, fruit,  and  mush- 
rooms. Many  of  them 
aresignedCABEINOC 

Cast  of  a  Body  from  the  Country  Villa  at  Bosco  Reale  ( ^^ OetftOS),       and       the 

artistic    merit    of    their   workmanship   needs    no 

comment. 

On  the  canthari  there  are  Loves  frolicking 

on  an  ass,  a  panther,  and  a   lion,   whose   tail  is 

pulled  by  a  laughing //</^.     There  is  an  elephant 

led  by   Loves,  one  of  whom  drags   him   by  the 

trunk;   and   many   other  charming  trifles  in  the 

Alexandrian    style.      On    two    drinking    vessels 

there  are  cranes  and  storks  feeding  their  young. 

or  flying  with  outspread  wings. 

The   two   cenochoa  with   bi-lobed    necks,  on 

which  a  winjjed  jrenius  and  a  Victory  are  sacri- 

ficinir  a  bull  before  the   statue   of  Minerva,  are 

also  very  fine.  There  are  further 
some  charming  cups  ornamented  with 
conventional  olive-branches,  salt- 
cellars supported  by  griffins,  and 
two  mirrors,  with   centre  ornaments, 

Drinking-cup.    Scyphus  from  Bosco  Reale  flhe  Louvre)      representing    respectively     Lcda    and 

Ariadne.     The  mirror  with  Ariadne  is  signed  with  the  name  of  the  artist, 


vi-iOT5tirJ 


Vt -ibel  for  pouiing  out  V\  ine,  Lagona, 
from  Bosco  Reale  (The  Louvre) 


t 


[ 


\\ 


^' 


ik 


I  ll* 


\ 


410 


PON[PEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


V 


t' 


HI 


\ 


\n  the  least  heavy.  The 
workmanship  is  exceed- 
ingly fine  and  delicate 
throughout. 

The  bowls  are 
ornamented  with  table 
utensils,  and  food,  ani- 
mals, fruit,  and  mush- 
rooms. Many  of  them 
aresignedCABEINOC 

Cast  of  .n  Body  from  the  Country  Vina  at  BoscoReale  (Sabeinos),       and       the 

artistic    merit    of    their   workmanship   needs   no 

comment. 

On  the  canthari  there  are  Loves  frolicking 

on  an  ass.  a  panther,  and  a   lion,   whose   tail  is 

pulled  by  a  laughin^j /////<?.     There  is  an  elephant 

led  by   Loves,  one  of  whom  drags   him  by  the 

trunk ;   and    many   other  charming  trifles   in  the 

Alexandrian    style.       On    two    drinking    vessels 

there  are  cranes  and  storks  feeding  their  young. 

or  flying  with  outspread  wings. 

The   two   cenochoce  with   bi-lobed    necks,  on 

which  a  winged  genius  and  a  Victory  are  sacri- 
ficing a  bull  before  the   statue   of  Minerva,  are 

also  very  fine.  There  are  further 
some  charming  cups  ornamented  with 
conventional  olive-branches,  salt- 
cellars supported  by  grifiins,  and 
two  mirrors,  with  centre  ornaments, 

Drinking-cup.     Scyphus  from  Bosco  Reale  (The  Louvre)      representing     reSpCCtivcly      Leda    and 

Ariadne.     The  mirror  with  Ariadne  is  signed  with  the  name  of  the  artist^ 


V<i>M.-{  fur  pouting  out  Wine,  Lagona, 
from  Bosco  Reale  (The  Louvre) 


^ 


1 


w 


%^ 


*■ 


M 


X. 


:iil 


O    - 


72 


ii 


,if 


THE   ARTS 


411 


M.  Domitius  Polygnos,  in  clotted  letters.  Other  specimens  from  this 
collection  are  the  two  vases  with  skeletons,  which  were  passed  round  after 
a  meal,  according  to  the  Epicurean  custom.  Greek  inscriptions  are 
engraved  on  them  in  dotted  letters,  and  the  names  of  Euripides,  Monimos, 


Silver  Bowl,  with  relief  representing  the  City  of  Alexandria,  from  Bosco  Reale  (The  Louvre) 

Menander,  Archilochus,  Zeno,  Epicurus,  Sophocles,  and  Moschion  can  be 
deciphered. 

Statuettes  of  precious  metals  have  also  been  found  at  Pompei :  a  seated 
Jupiter  of  silver,  a  Harpocrates,  and  figures  of  Isis  ;  a  golden  votive  lamp, 
and  small  silver  human  skeletons  and  Lares.  On  one  of  the  canthari 
found  in  the  Casa  di  Mcleagro  the  name  SOSINI   LAP! I  is  engraved. 


H 


f 


— r  'T   iiiirMiiiiilliiM  •'^'iiri'iii  II 


^.  ...i^..   I      .4C.. 


i.L-^ 


T 


,»t 


II 


BRONZE   ARTICLES 

H  E  various  objects  of  bronze  are  as  artistic  in  their  way  as  the  silver 
plate  for  rich  men's  tables,  and  the  silver  tripods,  where  perfumes 

were  burned  in  honour  of  the  jrods. 
rhe  candelabra  and  lamps  of  all  shapes 
are  remarkable  for  their  trrace  of  outline 
and  the  variety  of  their  ornament.  The 
jjraceful  bronze  tripod*  in  the  Naples 
Museum,  with  its  three  Fauns  standinjr 
back  to  back.t  shows  the  influence  of 
Alexandrian  art  in  the  sHmness  and 
vi<(our  of  the  fij^ures.  while  the  careful 


I 


I 


Bronze  I^nip-holdt-r  tLyrhnuchus) 


Brorzc  Door-knocker  with  Silver  Eyes 


(Naples  Museum) 

chasin*,'  is  inspired  by  the  school  of  Lysippus.     The  tripod  of  the  Temple 

=    IJron^e  tripod'^  wrre  f)ften  j;ivcn  as  prizes  to  the  victors  in  sanies.  |  See  p.  76. 


S 


THE   ARTS 


413 


^^:/ 


Bronze  Lamp  (Naples  Museum) 


of  I  sis.  with  its  marked  Graeco- Egyptian  character,  has  the  same  qualities  of 
style,*  and  the  foldintr  tables,  seats,  biseliia, 
and   large   bronze   vessels,  are   all   of  great 
interest.     Even    the   handles  of  vessels   are 

often   miniature 

works  of  art.    The 

drawingin  the  text 

illustrates   one    of 

these     handles 

which    ends   in    a 

bust   of  the    Hy- 
perborean   Apollo 

on    the    wings   of 

a  swan,  holding-  a 

lyre    and   a  p/ec- 

trum.      Although  they  are  simple  in  form,   the 

vessels,  craiera,  and  oeno- 

ckoip,  of  various   shapes  ^' 

and    styles,     have    their 
handles   chased 
and      ornamented 
with  a  figure  of  a 
woman,  a  bird,  or 

BroiKc  Cande1al)rum  (Naples  Museum)  an     animal.  De- 

corative  foliage  is  often  used  with  ver)^  picturesque 
effect,  and  canthari  are  wreathed  with  climbing  ivy. 
The  very  keys  are  artistic  in  form,  and  the  knockers 
on  the  doors  are  Medusa  heads,  with  silver  eyes 
and  lolling  tongues.  In  all  these  objects  we  note 
gnce  more  that  all-pervading  Asiatic  taste  already  noted.     The  candelabra, 

'■'  ^ec  p.  84. 


Bronze  Handle  of  a  Vessel, 

Hyperborean  Apollo 

(Naples  Museum) 


.^i- 


•»*!•? 


■  ■     .^  -  . — 


"■vj.<t-jJULaMt  W'.^  r"_j  .*!•"---.■  ■.,:  ,.  !;.->jft",A.,i.'i¥'*:""-'-V»afe^.^ 


i 


l)    i 


I 


I 


\J 


4»4 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,   ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


^amps.  and  bronzes  at  Pompei  have  an  exotic  touch  which  call  up  Oriental 
reminiscences.  It  is  possible  that  artists  from  Asia  may  have  introduced 
their  peculiar  Eastern  style,  giving  such  works  a  mixed  chanicter,   which 


Bronze  Vase 


Bronze  Crater 
(Naples  Museum) 


Bronze  Lamp 


has  a  certain  originality.  The  decorative  use  of  cranes  and  storks  as 
ornaments  for  vessels  closely  recalls  Japanese  ornament ;  and  I  noted  the 
same  artistic  analogy  in  some  Pompeian  paintings,  where  the  ducks  and 
swans  are  very  like  those  in  Japanese  kakemonos* 

*  Alexandrian  art  was  always  under  the  domination  of  Greek,  Asiatic,  and  Egyptian  influences. 
The  Phoenician  and  Cypriot  spirit  (which  is  derived  from  the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian)  also  added 
its  note  to  the  very  complex  harmony. 


Ill 


JEWELLERY-GLASS 

ART  had  set  its  stamp  everywhere  ;  the  eye  demanded  its  satisfactions, 
and  to  the  luxury  of  silver  and  chased  bronze  indulged  in  by  the 
men,  the  women  added  that  of  the  jewels  that  were  their  appanage. 
The  gold  jewellery  of  our  drawings  was  found  on  the  dead  bodies  of  young 
women  in  the  Villa  of  Diomedes.  For  delicacy  of  detail  and  minute 
workmanship  these  specimens  have  not  been  surpassed  by  any  modern 
goldsmith's  work.  Their  Etrusco-Gre- 
cian  style  is  a  proof  of  their  antiquity, 
for  the  Etruscans  were  famous  for  their 
skill  in  fine  goldsmith's  work,  which  they 
had  learnt  from  Greece  and  from  the 
East,  and  their  jewellery  was  largely  worn  by  both  men  and  women.  In 
ornaments  in  the  Greek  style,  precious  stones  were  not  always  used,  for. 
to  quote  M.  Collignon,  "  Greek  artists  attached  a  greater  value  to  artistic 
workmanship  than  to  costly  materials."* 

At  Pompei.  however,  precious  stones  were  in  great  demand,  and  there 
are  some  magnificent  specimens  of  engraved  gems  in  the  Naples  Museum. 
There  are  cameos,  in  high  relief,  of  such  delicate  workmanship  that  the  skill 
of  the  artist  who  carved  the  narrow  surfaces  of  these  gems — cornelian, 
amethyst,  emerald,  topaz,  rock  crystal,  onyx,  jasper,  agate,  and  garnet — 

*  M.  Collignon,  Archeologie  grecque. 


Gold  Hrooch  found  on  one  of  the  Skeletons  in  the 
Villa  of  Dioniedes  (Naples  Museum) 


f 


I 


r 


w 


416 


I'OMI'EI  :    THE    CITY,    ITS    LIFE    AND    ART 


seems   almost    miraculous.     Glass   paste  was   also  very  lar^^ely  used,  and 


Glass-ware  (Naples  Museum) 

women  of  small  means,  or  who  were  cheated  by  dealers,  wore  these  simili, 
which  were  very  good  imitations.  Beads  of  all 
colours  are  found  almost  every  day  at  Pompei, 
and  several  drops  of  colourless  glass  have  been 
found  which  are  covered  with  a  thin  coat  of  silver. 
Glass  was  a  material  in  ever)day  use  in 
Pompei.  Besides  the  glass  panes  in  certain 
houses  which  are  left  as  they  were  found,  or  placed 
in  the  Museum  of  Pompei,  there  is  an  e.xtremely 
fine  collection  of  antique  glass  from  the  city  in 


Gold  Jewellery  found  on  the  Skeletons 

in  the  Villa  of  Diomedes 

(Naples  Museum) 

the  Naples  Museum: 
vases,  pots,  funnels,  small 
amphora',  cups,  dishes, 
bowls,  flagons,  and  drink- 

Drinking-glasses  (Naples  Museum)  .  , 

ing-glasses  of  all  sorts  and 
sizes.  Several  glasses  are  decorated  with  uncut  gems  and  small  beads 
applied  to  the  surface  when  the  glass  was  still  in  fusion.  Some  fine  speci- 
mens of  this  kind,  made  of  white  or  smoked  glass,  might  be  Bohemian 
or  Venetian.     Examples  of  the  richly  decorated  goblets  of  moulded  glass 


THE   ARTS 


417 


made  at  Tyre  may  also  be  seen,  and  the  Phoenician  glass-ware  from  Sidon 


Glass-ware  (Naples  Museum) 


iin^^BEBnni: 


included    not  only   clouded   and   translucent  glass,  but  also  alabastra  and 

small  amphorce  with  striated  ornament. 

The  fine  amphora  with  raised  ornament  found  in  the  Way  of  Tombs, 

of  the  same  style  as   the    Portland   Vase  in 

the  British  Museum,  is  famous.  It  is  of  blue 
and  white  glass,  and  on  the 
body  of  it  are  represented 
Loves  as  vintagers,  sur- 
rounded by  decorative  trails 
of  vine-boughs  growing  from 
two  masks.  The  vase  is 
very  pure  in  colouring,  and 
the  workmanship  is  won- 
derfully delicate.  The  layer 
of  blue  glass  which  forms  the 
background  gives  admirable 
relief  to  the  raised  ornament 


Phoenician  Glass      in  light  tones,   which   shadc 

Alal>astrun) 

(Naples  Museum)     off  \^x.o  pure  opaque  white  in 


.    'iS'^ 


Vase  of  Blue  and  White  Glass 
(Naples  Museum) 


the  thickest  parts.  With  this  litde  blue 
amphora  I  will  bring  my  study  to  an  end. 
May  it,  too,  have  exhaled  something  of  the  antique  perfume! 

Impression. — In  this  pleasant  city,   full  of  treasures  of  art,   we  see, 
always  and  everywhere,  an  all-pervading  sentiment,  the  love  of  beauty.     If 


4i8 


POMPEI:   THE   CITY,    ITS   LIFE   AND   ART 


the  art  of  the  late  periods,  under  the  influence  of  Roman  civilisation,  has  its 
faults,  they  are  but  the  defects  of  its  qualities.  The  art  of  Pompei  was 
the  inseparable  companion  of  its  life,  and  gave  it  an  added  beauty  by 
touching  the  commonest  objects  with  an  ideal  grace,  and  decking  stern 
existence  with  the  amorous  elegance  born  of  dreams. 

Greece  had  so  strong  an  influence  on  these  dwellers  by  the  Mediterranean 
offshoots  of  its  mighty  genius,  that  the  people  of  Southern  Greek  Italy, 
unconsciously  steeped  in  the  same  ideas,  and  drawing  inspiration  from  the 
same  source,  preserved  the  inheritance  of  the  art  of  their  forefathers ;  and 
though  they  finally  wasted  their  patrimony,  what  remains  of  it  is  still 
delightful.  All  that  is  graceful,  pleasant,  and  lovely  in  Pompeian  art  is  due 
to  Greek  or  Hellenistic  influence.  The  taste  of  the  Roman  Empire,  which 
was  gaining  ground  during  the  last  period,  would  have  destroyed  the  last 
page  in  the  book.     The  volcano  put  an  end  to  the  decadence. 

To  sum  up,  our  prevailing  feeling  is  one  of  admiration.  It  is  strange 
that  an  obscure  provincial  city  should  contain  so  much  beauty !  What 
modern  town  can  be  compared  with  it  ?  The  last  rays  of  the  art  of  Greece 
shine  from  this  dusty  casket 


.i       i 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


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verschiitteten  Stadte  Campaniens.  Leipzig, 
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mm 


ll 


% 


420 


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scoperte  negli  anni  1867-79,  and  various 
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Pompeji  in  seinen  Gebauden.     Leipzig,  1884. 

BoissiER. — Rome  et  Pompei  (Promenades 
archeologiques).     Paris.     Fifth  edition,  1895. 

Fischetti. — Pompei  en  Ruines  et  en  Res- 
tauration.     1882. 

WiLLEMs.  —  The  Municipal  Elections  of 
Pompei.     Brussels,  1886.     In-8. 

Monaco.  —  Guide  du  Musee  de  Naples. 
1897. 

FioRELLi.  — Guide  de  Pompei.  New  trans- 
lation.    1897. 


Marriott. — Facts  about  Pompei.     London, 

>895. 

Weichardt. — Pompei  vor  der  Zerstoriing. 
Leipzig.     Large  in-fol.     1898. 

D'Amelio. — Pompei  dipinti  murali.  Napoli, 
1898.     In-fol. 

Engelmann. — Pompeji.    Leipzig,  1898. 

Lafave. — Histoire  des  Cultes  des  Divinit6s 
d'Alexandrie  hors  rEg>pte.     Paris,  1884. 

Max-Collignon. — La  Sculpture  grecque. 
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Cros  et  Henry.  —  L'Encaustiquc  et  les 
autres  Procedesde  Peinture  chez  les  Anciens. 
Paris,  1884. 

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Monumenti  antichi  publicati  per  cura  dcUa 
reale  Accademia  dei  Lincei,  &c. 


INDEX 


Abundance,  statue  of,  113  ;  lararia  to,  115 

Abraham,  considered  as  a  Lar,  107 

Achilles,  81,  294,  305,  354 

Adonis,  58,  353 

^dile,  205 

/Eneas,  107 

Msculapius,  91,  115 

Agathodamons,  81,  107,  112,  115 

Agrippina,  136 

Alexander  0/  Athens,  342,  354 

Alexander  Severus,  19,  107 

Alexandria,  72 

Alphabets,  36,  197,  199 

Altars,  92,  128,  258,  288 

Animals,  373*  377.  39°,  410,  414 

Amphitheatre,  22,  155,  165 

Amphora,  51,  229,  231,  243,  417 

Aphrodite,  59,  114 

Apollo,  66,  67,  115,  124,  174,  393 

Archaism,  344,  393 

Ariadne,  125,  291,  348 

Astarte,  58 

Atys,  59,  121 

Augustus,  5,  98,  106,  136 


Bacchus,  12,  76,  80,  82,  120,  291,  301,  357,  388 

Bakehouses,  241 

Banquets,  49,  78 

Barber,  145 

Barracks  of  Gladiators,  153 

Basilica,  60,  134,  319 

Baths,  281 

Bedroom,  267 

Bells,  127,  141 

Bestiarii,  164 

Bona  Fortuna,  74,  109,  lii 

Bronzes,  412 

Burial-place,  50 


Casar,  102 
Camilli,  67,  93,  113 


Campania,  4,  6,  8,  11 

Cannibalism,  7^ 

Capitals,  320,  321,  322 

Capitol  of  Pompei,  97 

Capitoline  Deities,  91,  96 

Capri,  5,  12,  34,  55 

Carpenters,  209 

Casts  of  human  bodies,  14-17 

Charon,  49 

Choragus,  179 

Christianity,  122,  124 

Cicero,  5 

Cithara,  174 

Claudius,  5 

Combats  of  Gladiators,  158,  164 

Comedians,  170-171 

Costumes,  306-309 

Courtesans,  228 

Crater,  4,  414 


Dadalus,  210 
Dances,  176,  312,  316 
Decorations,  316-323 
Diana,  67,  114,  125,  296,  393 
Diomedcs,  16 
Doctors,  239 
Dog  of  Pompei,  18 
Doors,  254 


Egypt,  72. 82 

Elections,  204-207 
Eros,  56,  62,  126,  358-364 
Etruscans,  4,  171 
Eumachia,  loi,  103 
Evil  Eye,  126 
Excavations,  19-26 


Farnesiita,  344 
Flutes,  173,  175 
Font,  81 


wmmmi 


if 


% 


422 

Fortifications,  37 
Forum,  136-140 
Fountains,  183,  186-187,  2i8 
Frigidarium,  144 
Funerals,  52 


Games,  154,  157,  220 
Gates,  28-39 
Grnii,  105-109 
Gladiators,  158-163 
Glassuare,  416-417 
Gods,  75-76,  115-116 
Goldsmiths,  415-416 
Graces,  361 
Graffiti,  134,  155,  201,  241 

Hadrian,  146 

Hair-dressing,  307-308 

Harness,  237 

Hellenism,  384 

Helmets,  18,  162 

Herculanaum,  4,  8,  38 

Hercules,  4,  12.  62,  302 

Hermaphrodites,  58,  67,  357-359 

Hierophiri,77 

Histriones,  171 

Houses  in  Pompei,  253-289 

Hygeia,  91 


//.W,  66 
Impluvium,  25 

Inhabitants    0/  Pompei,  casts  and  skeletons  of, 
14-19 

/«MS,  217-221, 224 

Inscriptions,  193 
Iphtgenia,  347-349 
/si5,  72-87 


Janus,  no 

ytSKS  Christ,  considered  as  a  Lar,  107 

Jeuellery,  415 

ytte'S,  122 

Journals,  211-212 

y«no,  92 

Jupiter,  91,  96,  97 


A'try  0/  Diomedes,  17 
Kitchens,  222,  279,  311-314 


L<i/<i  0/  CyzicMs,  336 
Lawi/s,  15,  295,  301-304 


INDEX 


Lararia,  81,  105,  107,  110-120 

L«ir«,    99-100 ;    festivals    of    the,    100,     101 ; 

domestic,  105-107 
Leda,  362 

Lion,  the  Nemean,  62 
Lo^M5,  79,  81-82,  85 
Love,  61-62,  358-360,  395-396 


Macellum,  98,  99 
Manes,  105 
Marshes  of  Pompei,  5 
A/m/s,  310-315 
Mercury,  58,  83,  114,  125 
Money,  214-216 
Mosaics,  380-383 
Music,  173-174 


Nature  worship,  73-75 
N^ro,  4,  136,  155 
Nile,  adoration  of,  79,  85 
Nimbus,  81,  124 
Nuceria,  6 
Nucerians,  154,  155 


Offerings,  Votive,  61,  69,  91,  94,  95 
Omphales,  67-69 
Orpheus,  107,  124 
Osiris,  76,  77 


Pagus  Augustus  Felix,  4,  18,  39,  54 

Paintings,  334-379 

Prtw,  61 

Pantheism,  74 

Parrhasius,  335,  351 

Pasiteles,  345,  392-393 

Pas/ry,  243,  311 

Patella,  93,  113 

P«/<ra,  93,  95,  112,  113,  116 

P/i«_y  the  Historian,  8-12 

P/i«_>'  //t<  Naturalist,  8-10 

Pompei,  4-12,  29-37 

Polycletus,  387-388 

Portraits  in  Pompei,  366-372,  388,  397-398 

Praxiteles,  111,  388,  389 


Sacellium,  76,  in,  114 
Seneca,  5,  6,  107,  163 
Silver-plate,  408-41 1 
Slaves,  242 
S/<ifci<r,  5,  6,  8,  15 
Streets  of  Pompei,  28-39 
Surg;ical  Instrununts,  238 


INDEX 


423 


TabUs,  269,  396 

Tablets  of  wax,  213-216 

Ta/s,  281,  297 

Taverns,  217,  225 

Temples,  60-68,  73,  83-89,  93-98 

Theatres,  166-179 

Therma,  141-150 

Tombs,  44-55 

Tools,  234-237 

Trade-signs,  214,  219,  220 


Unguentaria,  142,  144 


Urania,  58 


F'flSM,  271,  304 
Veuationes,  164-165 
Venereum,  115,  281-282 
K«««s,  56-62 
Vesuvius,  4,  7,  8,  9,  12,  15 

Water,  183-186;  sacred,  79,  81 

Wings,  124 

Women,  86-87,  177,  178,  306-309,  367-370 

Wrestlers,  149-151 


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